Effect of Nano–Palm Kernel Shell Biochar on Cure, Swelling, and Mechanical Properties of Natural Rubber Vulcanizates
The rapid growth in Malaysia’s oil palm industry has resulted in the increase in production of palm oil and oil palm waste such as palm kernel shell (PKS). However, the lack of awareness on the beneficial value of these wastes has led to sustainability issues. Thus, PKS can be converted into biochar...
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North Carolina State University
2025-04-01
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| Online Access: | https://ojs.bioresources.com/index.php/BRJ/article/view/24165 |
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| author | Mohammad Tahar Nur Aisyah Ar-Raudhoh Mohd Fadzli Muhamad Haziq Mamauod Siti Nur Liyana Zainal Nahrul Hayawin |
| author_facet | Mohammad Tahar Nur Aisyah Ar-Raudhoh Mohd Fadzli Muhamad Haziq Mamauod Siti Nur Liyana Zainal Nahrul Hayawin |
| author_sort | Mohammad Tahar Nur Aisyah Ar-Raudhoh |
| collection | DOAJ |
| description | The rapid growth in Malaysia’s oil palm industry has resulted in the increase in production of palm oil and oil palm waste such as palm kernel shell (PKS). However, the lack of awareness on the beneficial value of these wastes has led to sustainability issues. Thus, PKS can be converted into biochar (PKSB) and can be used as a potential bio-filler. The PKSB was produced in sizes ranging from micro to nano using a high energy ball mill (HEBM) to be used as a filler in natural rubber (NR) vulcanizates. This study evaluated the effects of varying n-PKSB loadings (0 to 10 phr) on the cure characteristics, bound rubber content (BRC), swelling, tensile, and abrasion properties of the NR vulcanizates. Results showed that n-PKSB-filled NR vulcanizates had lower minimum torque (ML) and cure rate index (CRI), along with improved BRC and crosslink density as the filler concentrations increased. The optimum loading ratio was 5 phr (F4), as this formulation offered the best mechanical properties and more homogenous dispersion of n-PKSB compared to other loadings. The overall performance of F4 showed high crosslink density (7.82 x 10-5 mol/cm3), BRC (3.94%), tensile strength (17 MPa), abrasion resistance (32.37%), and lower EB (451%). Overall, n-PKSB has great potential as bio-filler, addressing oil palm waste issues and benefiting the industry. |
| format | Article |
| id | doaj-art-cc69ae2dc4a54cb09e7b09678c118a5b |
| institution | DOAJ |
| issn | 1930-2126 |
| language | English |
| publishDate | 2025-04-01 |
| publisher | North Carolina State University |
| record_format | Article |
| series | BioResources |
| spelling | doaj-art-cc69ae2dc4a54cb09e7b09678c118a5b2025-08-20T03:11:51ZengNorth Carolina State UniversityBioResources1930-21262025-04-01202433043452422Effect of Nano–Palm Kernel Shell Biochar on Cure, Swelling, and Mechanical Properties of Natural Rubber VulcanizatesMohammad Tahar Nur Aisyah Ar-Raudhoh0Mohd Fadzli Muhamad Haziq1Mamauod Siti Nur Liyana2https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8768-2395Zainal Nahrul Hayawin3Faculty of Applied Sciences, Universiti Teknologi MARA, 40450 Shah Alam, Selangor, MalaysiaFaculty of Applied Sciences, Universiti Teknologi MARA, 40450 Shah Alam, Selangor, MalaysiaFaculty of Applied Sciences, Universiti Teknologi MARA, 40450 Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia; Centre of Chemical Synthesis & Polymer Technology (CCSPT), Institute of Science, Universiti Teknologi MARA, 40450 Shah Alam, Selangor, MalaysiaBiomass Technology Unit, Engineering & Processing Division, Malaysian Palm Oil Board (MPOB), No. 6, Persiaran Institusi, Bandar Baru Bangi, 43000 Kajang, Selangor, MalaysiaThe rapid growth in Malaysia’s oil palm industry has resulted in the increase in production of palm oil and oil palm waste such as palm kernel shell (PKS). However, the lack of awareness on the beneficial value of these wastes has led to sustainability issues. Thus, PKS can be converted into biochar (PKSB) and can be used as a potential bio-filler. The PKSB was produced in sizes ranging from micro to nano using a high energy ball mill (HEBM) to be used as a filler in natural rubber (NR) vulcanizates. This study evaluated the effects of varying n-PKSB loadings (0 to 10 phr) on the cure characteristics, bound rubber content (BRC), swelling, tensile, and abrasion properties of the NR vulcanizates. Results showed that n-PKSB-filled NR vulcanizates had lower minimum torque (ML) and cure rate index (CRI), along with improved BRC and crosslink density as the filler concentrations increased. The optimum loading ratio was 5 phr (F4), as this formulation offered the best mechanical properties and more homogenous dispersion of n-PKSB compared to other loadings. The overall performance of F4 showed high crosslink density (7.82 x 10-5 mol/cm3), BRC (3.94%), tensile strength (17 MPa), abrasion resistance (32.37%), and lower EB (451%). Overall, n-PKSB has great potential as bio-filler, addressing oil palm waste issues and benefiting the industry.https://ojs.bioresources.com/index.php/BRJ/article/view/24165bio-fillernano-palm kernel shell biocharnatural rubberoil palm wastemechanical properties |
| spellingShingle | Mohammad Tahar Nur Aisyah Ar-Raudhoh Mohd Fadzli Muhamad Haziq Mamauod Siti Nur Liyana Zainal Nahrul Hayawin Effect of Nano–Palm Kernel Shell Biochar on Cure, Swelling, and Mechanical Properties of Natural Rubber Vulcanizates BioResources bio-filler nano-palm kernel shell biochar natural rubber oil palm waste mechanical properties |
| title | Effect of Nano–Palm Kernel Shell Biochar on Cure, Swelling, and Mechanical Properties of Natural Rubber Vulcanizates |
| title_full | Effect of Nano–Palm Kernel Shell Biochar on Cure, Swelling, and Mechanical Properties of Natural Rubber Vulcanizates |
| title_fullStr | Effect of Nano–Palm Kernel Shell Biochar on Cure, Swelling, and Mechanical Properties of Natural Rubber Vulcanizates |
| title_full_unstemmed | Effect of Nano–Palm Kernel Shell Biochar on Cure, Swelling, and Mechanical Properties of Natural Rubber Vulcanizates |
| title_short | Effect of Nano–Palm Kernel Shell Biochar on Cure, Swelling, and Mechanical Properties of Natural Rubber Vulcanizates |
| title_sort | effect of nano palm kernel shell biochar on cure swelling and mechanical properties of natural rubber vulcanizates |
| topic | bio-filler nano-palm kernel shell biochar natural rubber oil palm waste mechanical properties |
| url | https://ojs.bioresources.com/index.php/BRJ/article/view/24165 |
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