A Review of Seasonal Energy Storage for Net-Zero Industrial Heat: Thermal and Power-to-X Storage Including the Novel Concept of Renewable Metal Energy Carriers
Achieving net-zero greenhouse gas emissions by 2050 requires CO<sub>2</sub>-neutral industrial process heat, with seasonal energy storage (SES) playing a crucial role in balancing supply and demand. This study reviews thermal energy storage (TES) and Power-to-X (P2X) technologies for app...
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| author | Yvonne I. Baeuerle Cordin Arpagaus Michel Y. Haller |
| author_facet | Yvonne I. Baeuerle Cordin Arpagaus Michel Y. Haller |
| author_sort | Yvonne I. Baeuerle |
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| description | Achieving net-zero greenhouse gas emissions by 2050 requires CO<sub>2</sub>-neutral industrial process heat, with seasonal energy storage (SES) playing a crucial role in balancing supply and demand. This study reviews thermal energy storage (TES) and Power-to-X (P2X) technologies for applications without thermal grids, assessing their feasibility, state of the art, opportunities, and challenges. Underground TES (UTES), such as aquifer and borehole storage, offer 1–26 times lower annual heat storage costs than above-ground tanks. For P2X, hydrogen storage in salt caverns is 80% less expensive than in high-pressure tanks. Methane and methanol storage costs depend on CO<sub>2</sub> sourcing, while Renewable Metal Energy Carriers (ReMECs), such as aluminum and iron, offer high energy density and up to 580 times lower storage volume, with aluminum potentially achieving the lowest Levelized Cost of X Storage (LCOXS) at a rate of 180 EUR/MWh of energy discharged. Underground TES and hydrogen caverns are cost-effective but face spatial/geological constraints. P2X alternatives have established infrastructure but have lower efficiency, whereas ReMECs show promise for large-scale storage. However, economic viability remains a challenge due to very few annual cycles, which require significant reductions of investment cost and annual cost of capital (CAPEX), as well as improvements in overall system efficiency to minimize losses. These findings highlight the trade-offs between cost, space requirements, and the feasibility of SES deployment in industry. |
| format | Article |
| id | doaj-art-803712e022174803897ac3e9e4cd97e7 |
| institution | OA Journals |
| issn | 1996-1073 |
| language | English |
| publishDate | 2025-04-01 |
| publisher | MDPI AG |
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| series | Energies |
| spelling | doaj-art-803712e022174803897ac3e9e4cd97e72025-08-20T01:49:24ZengMDPI AGEnergies1996-10732025-04-01189220410.3390/en18092204A Review of Seasonal Energy Storage for Net-Zero Industrial Heat: Thermal and Power-to-X Storage Including the Novel Concept of Renewable Metal Energy CarriersYvonne I. Baeuerle0Cordin Arpagaus1Michel Y. Haller2Institute for Solar Technology (SPF), Eastern Switzerland University of Applied Sciences (OST), Rapperswil, Oberseestrasse 10, 8640 Rapperswil, SwitzerlandInstitute for Energy Systems (IES), Eastern Switzerland University of Applied Sciences (OST), Buchs, Werdenbergstrasse 4, 9471 Buchs, SwitzerlandInstitute for Solar Technology (SPF), Eastern Switzerland University of Applied Sciences (OST), Rapperswil, Oberseestrasse 10, 8640 Rapperswil, SwitzerlandAchieving net-zero greenhouse gas emissions by 2050 requires CO<sub>2</sub>-neutral industrial process heat, with seasonal energy storage (SES) playing a crucial role in balancing supply and demand. This study reviews thermal energy storage (TES) and Power-to-X (P2X) technologies for applications without thermal grids, assessing their feasibility, state of the art, opportunities, and challenges. Underground TES (UTES), such as aquifer and borehole storage, offer 1–26 times lower annual heat storage costs than above-ground tanks. For P2X, hydrogen storage in salt caverns is 80% less expensive than in high-pressure tanks. Methane and methanol storage costs depend on CO<sub>2</sub> sourcing, while Renewable Metal Energy Carriers (ReMECs), such as aluminum and iron, offer high energy density and up to 580 times lower storage volume, with aluminum potentially achieving the lowest Levelized Cost of X Storage (LCOXS) at a rate of 180 EUR/MWh of energy discharged. Underground TES and hydrogen caverns are cost-effective but face spatial/geological constraints. P2X alternatives have established infrastructure but have lower efficiency, whereas ReMECs show promise for large-scale storage. However, economic viability remains a challenge due to very few annual cycles, which require significant reductions of investment cost and annual cost of capital (CAPEX), as well as improvements in overall system efficiency to minimize losses. These findings highlight the trade-offs between cost, space requirements, and the feasibility of SES deployment in industry.https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/18/9/2204decarbonize industrial heatseasonal energy storagethermal energy storagepower-to-xrenewable metal energy carrierssector coupling |
| spellingShingle | Yvonne I. Baeuerle Cordin Arpagaus Michel Y. Haller A Review of Seasonal Energy Storage for Net-Zero Industrial Heat: Thermal and Power-to-X Storage Including the Novel Concept of Renewable Metal Energy Carriers Energies decarbonize industrial heat seasonal energy storage thermal energy storage power-to-x renewable metal energy carriers sector coupling |
| title | A Review of Seasonal Energy Storage for Net-Zero Industrial Heat: Thermal and Power-to-X Storage Including the Novel Concept of Renewable Metal Energy Carriers |
| title_full | A Review of Seasonal Energy Storage for Net-Zero Industrial Heat: Thermal and Power-to-X Storage Including the Novel Concept of Renewable Metal Energy Carriers |
| title_fullStr | A Review of Seasonal Energy Storage for Net-Zero Industrial Heat: Thermal and Power-to-X Storage Including the Novel Concept of Renewable Metal Energy Carriers |
| title_full_unstemmed | A Review of Seasonal Energy Storage for Net-Zero Industrial Heat: Thermal and Power-to-X Storage Including the Novel Concept of Renewable Metal Energy Carriers |
| title_short | A Review of Seasonal Energy Storage for Net-Zero Industrial Heat: Thermal and Power-to-X Storage Including the Novel Concept of Renewable Metal Energy Carriers |
| title_sort | review of seasonal energy storage for net zero industrial heat thermal and power to x storage including the novel concept of renewable metal energy carriers |
| topic | decarbonize industrial heat seasonal energy storage thermal energy storage power-to-x renewable metal energy carriers sector coupling |
| url | https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/18/9/2204 |
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