HIV-Helminth Co-Infections and Immune Checkpoints: Implications for Cancer Risk in South Africa

HIV-Helminth Co-Infections and Immune Checkpoints: Implications for Cancer Risk in South Africa

South Africa has the highest HIV prevalence globally, often co-occurring with helminth infections in impoverished regions. The coexistence of these infections leads to immunological interactions, potentially enhancing oncogenesis by upregulating immune checkpoint molecules (ICs) among other effects....

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Bibliographic Details
Main Authors: Botle Precious Damane, Thanyani Victor Mulaudzi, Sayed Shakeel Kader, Pragalathan Naidoo, Zodwa Dlamini, Zilungile Lynette Mkhize-Kwitshana
Format: Article
Language:English
Published: MDPI AG 2025-03-01
Series:Viruses
Subjects:
HIV-helminth co-infection
immune checkpoint molecules
immunosuppressive microenvironment
CD28 downregulation
Th2-type immunity
PD-1 and TIM-3
Online Access:https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4915/17/3/451
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