The Toxic Masculinity Scale: Development and Initial Validation
The present study sought to develop and validate the Toxic Masculinity Scale (TMS). Following scale development best practices, a thorough review of the literature and existing measures was conducted. Next, a qualitative inquiry using a grounded theory approach was employed to develop a data-driven...
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MDPI AG
2024-11-01
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| author | Steven Michael Sanders Claudia Garcia-Aguilera Nicholas C. Borgogna John Richmond T. Sy Gianna Comoglio Olivia A. M. Schultz Jacqueline Goldman |
| author_facet | Steven Michael Sanders Claudia Garcia-Aguilera Nicholas C. Borgogna John Richmond T. Sy Gianna Comoglio Olivia A. M. Schultz Jacqueline Goldman |
| author_sort | Steven Michael Sanders |
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| description | The present study sought to develop and validate the Toxic Masculinity Scale (TMS). Following scale development best practices, a thorough review of the literature and existing measures was conducted. Next, a qualitative inquiry using a grounded theory approach was employed to develop a data-driven definition of toxic masculinity and 165 proposed instrument items. These items were reviewed and modified with input from content experts (<i>N</i> = 6). The initial 108 items were administered to a preliminary sample (<i>N</i> = 683) of U.S. White undergraduate men. Exploratory factor analysis indicated a five-factor structure (i.e., Masculine Superiority, Gender Rigidity, Emotional Restriction, Repressed Suffering, Domination and Desire). Item analysis yielded a 35-item five factor survey that was administered to a second novel sample (<i>N</i> = 408) of White undergraduate men. A confirmatory factor analysis indicated inadequate fit for the 35-item scale; however, fit was improved by reducing scale length to 28 items loading onto 4 factors (removal of the Domination and Desire factor). Internal consistency reliability, construct validity, and discriminant validity were explored with this sample. The TMS28 demonstrated strong positive correlations with related measures (e.g., CMNI, MRNI) and a strong negative correlation with a diametrically opposed measure (i.e., LFAIS). Additionally, the TMS28 demonstrated strong adequate internal consistency for the scale overall (<i>α</i> = 0.93) and for the four subscales (i.e., <i>α</i> = 0.87–0.94). Future directions and implications for the instrument are discussed. |
| format | Article |
| id | doaj-art-08002a7df7e1454993ee6b7df49496bd |
| institution | OA Journals |
| issn | 2076-328X |
| language | English |
| publishDate | 2024-11-01 |
| publisher | MDPI AG |
| record_format | Article |
| series | Behavioral Sciences |
| spelling | doaj-art-08002a7df7e1454993ee6b7df49496bd2025-08-20T02:08:02ZengMDPI AGBehavioral Sciences2076-328X2024-11-011411109610.3390/bs14111096The Toxic Masculinity Scale: Development and Initial ValidationSteven Michael Sanders0Claudia Garcia-Aguilera1Nicholas C. Borgogna2John Richmond T. Sy3Gianna Comoglio4Olivia A. M. Schultz5Jacqueline Goldman6School of Psychological Science, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, USASchool of Psychological Science, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, USADepartment of Psychology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294, USASchool of Psychological Science, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, USASchool of Psychological Science, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, USASchool of Psychological Science, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, USASchool of Psychological Science, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, USAThe present study sought to develop and validate the Toxic Masculinity Scale (TMS). Following scale development best practices, a thorough review of the literature and existing measures was conducted. Next, a qualitative inquiry using a grounded theory approach was employed to develop a data-driven definition of toxic masculinity and 165 proposed instrument items. These items were reviewed and modified with input from content experts (<i>N</i> = 6). The initial 108 items were administered to a preliminary sample (<i>N</i> = 683) of U.S. White undergraduate men. Exploratory factor analysis indicated a five-factor structure (i.e., Masculine Superiority, Gender Rigidity, Emotional Restriction, Repressed Suffering, Domination and Desire). Item analysis yielded a 35-item five factor survey that was administered to a second novel sample (<i>N</i> = 408) of White undergraduate men. A confirmatory factor analysis indicated inadequate fit for the 35-item scale; however, fit was improved by reducing scale length to 28 items loading onto 4 factors (removal of the Domination and Desire factor). Internal consistency reliability, construct validity, and discriminant validity were explored with this sample. The TMS28 demonstrated strong positive correlations with related measures (e.g., CMNI, MRNI) and a strong negative correlation with a diametrically opposed measure (i.e., LFAIS). Additionally, the TMS28 demonstrated strong adequate internal consistency for the scale overall (<i>α</i> = 0.93) and for the four subscales (i.e., <i>α</i> = 0.87–0.94). Future directions and implications for the instrument are discussed.https://www.mdpi.com/2076-328X/14/11/1096measurementmasculinityinstrument development |
| spellingShingle | Steven Michael Sanders Claudia Garcia-Aguilera Nicholas C. Borgogna John Richmond T. Sy Gianna Comoglio Olivia A. M. Schultz Jacqueline Goldman The Toxic Masculinity Scale: Development and Initial Validation Behavioral Sciences measurement masculinity instrument development |
| title | The Toxic Masculinity Scale: Development and Initial Validation |
| title_full | The Toxic Masculinity Scale: Development and Initial Validation |
| title_fullStr | The Toxic Masculinity Scale: Development and Initial Validation |
| title_full_unstemmed | The Toxic Masculinity Scale: Development and Initial Validation |
| title_short | The Toxic Masculinity Scale: Development and Initial Validation |
| title_sort | toxic masculinity scale development and initial validation |
| topic | measurement masculinity instrument development |
| url | https://www.mdpi.com/2076-328X/14/11/1096 |
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