Associations of caffeine and caffeine metabolites with sex hormones among 6–19-year-old children and adolescents
Abstract We aimed to assess the associations between caffeine and its metabolites and sex steroid hormones among children (aged 6–11 years) and adolescents (aged 12–19 years) using data from the U.S. National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANCES) conducted in 2013–2014. A total of 579 in...
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Nature Portfolio
2025-07-01
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| Online Access: | https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-06330-0 |
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| author | Shengping Li Zhichao Yuan Yong Zhao Nianrong Wang |
| author_facet | Shengping Li Zhichao Yuan Yong Zhao Nianrong Wang |
| author_sort | Shengping Li |
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| description | Abstract We aimed to assess the associations between caffeine and its metabolites and sex steroid hormones among children (aged 6–11 years) and adolescents (aged 12–19 years) using data from the U.S. National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANCES) conducted in 2013–2014. A total of 579 individuals aged 6–19 years with available data on urinary caffeine and its metabolites, as well as serum hormones [total testosterone (TT), estradiol (E2), sex hormone–binding globulin (SHBG)], were included. Additionally, the free androgen index (FAI) was calculated as TT/SHBG, and the ratio of TT to E2 (TT/E2) was estimated. Puberty status was defined based on hormone levels (TT ≥ 30 ng/dL in males and E2 ≥ 20 pg/ml in females for high steroid hormone levels; otherwise considered prepuberty). Linear regression, weighted quantile sum (WQS) regression, and Q-gcomp analyses were performed to estimate the associations of individual chemicals or chemical mixtures with sex hormones. Linear regression analyses indicated inverse associations between 12 and 15 caffeine metabolites with SHBG levels in male children and prepubertal boys, respectively. Furthermore, WQS regression demonstrated that caffeine mixtures were inversely associated with E2 and TT levels in male adolescents and prepubertal boys. Similar results were observed with Q-gcomp analysis. Exposure to caffeine and its metabolites, either individually or as a mixture, was inversely associated with SHBG levels in male children and prepubertal boys. Additionally, caffeine mixtures were associated with decreased levels of E2 and TT in male adolescents and prepubertal boys. |
| format | Article |
| id | doaj-art-ec27c00d64b34d3d82adb0c490c8f5e0 |
| institution | Kabale University |
| issn | 2045-2322 |
| language | English |
| publishDate | 2025-07-01 |
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| spelling | doaj-art-ec27c00d64b34d3d82adb0c490c8f5e02025-08-20T03:37:22ZengNature PortfolioScientific Reports2045-23222025-07-0115111410.1038/s41598-025-06330-0Associations of caffeine and caffeine metabolites with sex hormones among 6–19-year-old children and adolescentsShengping Li0Zhichao Yuan1Yong Zhao2Nianrong Wang3Department of Children Healthcare, Women and Children’s Hospital of Chongqing Medical UniversityDepartment of Maternal and Child Health, School of Public Health, Peking UniversitySchool of Public Health, Chongqing Medical UniversityDepartment of Children Healthcare, Women and Children’s Hospital of Chongqing Medical UniversityAbstract We aimed to assess the associations between caffeine and its metabolites and sex steroid hormones among children (aged 6–11 years) and adolescents (aged 12–19 years) using data from the U.S. National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANCES) conducted in 2013–2014. A total of 579 individuals aged 6–19 years with available data on urinary caffeine and its metabolites, as well as serum hormones [total testosterone (TT), estradiol (E2), sex hormone–binding globulin (SHBG)], were included. Additionally, the free androgen index (FAI) was calculated as TT/SHBG, and the ratio of TT to E2 (TT/E2) was estimated. Puberty status was defined based on hormone levels (TT ≥ 30 ng/dL in males and E2 ≥ 20 pg/ml in females for high steroid hormone levels; otherwise considered prepuberty). Linear regression, weighted quantile sum (WQS) regression, and Q-gcomp analyses were performed to estimate the associations of individual chemicals or chemical mixtures with sex hormones. Linear regression analyses indicated inverse associations between 12 and 15 caffeine metabolites with SHBG levels in male children and prepubertal boys, respectively. Furthermore, WQS regression demonstrated that caffeine mixtures were inversely associated with E2 and TT levels in male adolescents and prepubertal boys. Similar results were observed with Q-gcomp analysis. Exposure to caffeine and its metabolites, either individually or as a mixture, was inversely associated with SHBG levels in male children and prepubertal boys. Additionally, caffeine mixtures were associated with decreased levels of E2 and TT in male adolescents and prepubertal boys.https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-06330-0Children/adolescentsCaffeine/caffeine metabolitesSex hormonesNational health and nutrition examination surveyMixed exposure |
| spellingShingle | Shengping Li Zhichao Yuan Yong Zhao Nianrong Wang Associations of caffeine and caffeine metabolites with sex hormones among 6–19-year-old children and adolescents Scientific Reports Children/adolescents Caffeine/caffeine metabolites Sex hormones National health and nutrition examination survey Mixed exposure |
| title | Associations of caffeine and caffeine metabolites with sex hormones among 6–19-year-old children and adolescents |
| title_full | Associations of caffeine and caffeine metabolites with sex hormones among 6–19-year-old children and adolescents |
| title_fullStr | Associations of caffeine and caffeine metabolites with sex hormones among 6–19-year-old children and adolescents |
| title_full_unstemmed | Associations of caffeine and caffeine metabolites with sex hormones among 6–19-year-old children and adolescents |
| title_short | Associations of caffeine and caffeine metabolites with sex hormones among 6–19-year-old children and adolescents |
| title_sort | associations of caffeine and caffeine metabolites with sex hormones among 6 19 year old children and adolescents |
| topic | Children/adolescents Caffeine/caffeine metabolites Sex hormones National health and nutrition examination survey Mixed exposure |
| url | https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-06330-0 |
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