Machine Learning-Based Prediction of Ecosystem-Scale CO<sub>2</sub> Flux Measurements
AmeriFlux is a network of hundreds of sites across the contiguous United States providing tower-based ecosystem-scale carbon dioxide flux measurements at 30 min temporal resolution. While geographically wide-ranging, over its existence the network has suffered from multiple issues including towers r...
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2025-01-01
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| author | Jeffrey Uyekawa John Leland Darby Bergl Yujie Liu Andrew D. Richardson Benjamin Lucas |
| author_facet | Jeffrey Uyekawa John Leland Darby Bergl Yujie Liu Andrew D. Richardson Benjamin Lucas |
| author_sort | Jeffrey Uyekawa |
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| description | AmeriFlux is a network of hundreds of sites across the contiguous United States providing tower-based ecosystem-scale carbon dioxide flux measurements at 30 min temporal resolution. While geographically wide-ranging, over its existence the network has suffered from multiple issues including towers regularly ceasing operation for extended periods and a lack of standardization of measurements between sites. In this study, we use machine learning algorithms to predict CO<sub>2</sub> flux measurements at NEON sites (a subset of Ameriflux sites), creating a model to gap-fill measurements when sites are down or replace measurements when they are incorrect. Machine learning algorithms also have the ability to generalize to new sites, potentially even those without a flux tower. We compared the performance of seven machine learning algorithms using 35 environmental drivers and site-specific variables as predictors. We found that Extreme Gradient Boosting (XGBoost) consistently produced the most accurate predictions (Root Mean Squared Error of 1.81 μmolm<sup>−2</sup>s<sup>−1</sup>, R<sup>2</sup> of 0.86). The model showed excellent performance testing on sites that are ecologically similar to other sites (the Mid Atlantic, New England, and the Rocky Mountains), but poorer performance at sites with fewer ecological similarities to other sites in the data (Pacific Northwest, Florida, and Puerto Rico). The results show strong potential for machine learning-based models to make more skillful predictions than state-of-the-art process-based models, being able to estimate the multi-year mean carbon balance to within an error ±50 gCm<sup>−2</sup>y<sup>−1</sup> for 29 of our 44 test sites. These results have significant implications for being able to accurately predict the carbon flux or gap-fill an extended outage at any AmeriFlux site, and for being able to quantify carbon flux in support of natural climate solutions. |
| format | Article |
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| institution | Kabale University |
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| language | English |
| publishDate | 2025-01-01 |
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| spelling | doaj-art-e83a704b1bf943669f33a7505e9a6f782025-01-24T13:38:00ZengMDPI AGLand2073-445X2025-01-0114112410.3390/land14010124Machine Learning-Based Prediction of Ecosystem-Scale CO<sub>2</sub> Flux MeasurementsJeffrey Uyekawa0John Leland1Darby Bergl2Yujie Liu3Andrew D. Richardson4Benjamin Lucas5Department of Mathematics and Statistics, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, AZ 86011, USADepartment of Mathematics and Statistics, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, AZ 86011, USACenter for Ecosystem Science and Society, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, AZ 86011, USACenter for Ecosystem Science and Society, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, AZ 86011, USACenter for Ecosystem Science and Society, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, AZ 86011, USADepartment of Mathematics and Statistics, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, AZ 86011, USAAmeriFlux is a network of hundreds of sites across the contiguous United States providing tower-based ecosystem-scale carbon dioxide flux measurements at 30 min temporal resolution. While geographically wide-ranging, over its existence the network has suffered from multiple issues including towers regularly ceasing operation for extended periods and a lack of standardization of measurements between sites. In this study, we use machine learning algorithms to predict CO<sub>2</sub> flux measurements at NEON sites (a subset of Ameriflux sites), creating a model to gap-fill measurements when sites are down or replace measurements when they are incorrect. Machine learning algorithms also have the ability to generalize to new sites, potentially even those without a flux tower. We compared the performance of seven machine learning algorithms using 35 environmental drivers and site-specific variables as predictors. We found that Extreme Gradient Boosting (XGBoost) consistently produced the most accurate predictions (Root Mean Squared Error of 1.81 μmolm<sup>−2</sup>s<sup>−1</sup>, R<sup>2</sup> of 0.86). The model showed excellent performance testing on sites that are ecologically similar to other sites (the Mid Atlantic, New England, and the Rocky Mountains), but poorer performance at sites with fewer ecological similarities to other sites in the data (Pacific Northwest, Florida, and Puerto Rico). The results show strong potential for machine learning-based models to make more skillful predictions than state-of-the-art process-based models, being able to estimate the multi-year mean carbon balance to within an error ±50 gCm<sup>−2</sup>y<sup>−1</sup> for 29 of our 44 test sites. These results have significant implications for being able to accurately predict the carbon flux or gap-fill an extended outage at any AmeriFlux site, and for being able to quantify carbon flux in support of natural climate solutions.https://www.mdpi.com/2073-445X/14/1/124carbon dioxide fluxnature-based climate solutionsmachine learningXGBoostNational Ecological Observatory NetworkAmeriFlux |
| spellingShingle | Jeffrey Uyekawa John Leland Darby Bergl Yujie Liu Andrew D. Richardson Benjamin Lucas Machine Learning-Based Prediction of Ecosystem-Scale CO<sub>2</sub> Flux Measurements Land carbon dioxide flux nature-based climate solutions machine learning XGBoost National Ecological Observatory Network AmeriFlux |
| title | Machine Learning-Based Prediction of Ecosystem-Scale CO<sub>2</sub> Flux Measurements |
| title_full | Machine Learning-Based Prediction of Ecosystem-Scale CO<sub>2</sub> Flux Measurements |
| title_fullStr | Machine Learning-Based Prediction of Ecosystem-Scale CO<sub>2</sub> Flux Measurements |
| title_full_unstemmed | Machine Learning-Based Prediction of Ecosystem-Scale CO<sub>2</sub> Flux Measurements |
| title_short | Machine Learning-Based Prediction of Ecosystem-Scale CO<sub>2</sub> Flux Measurements |
| title_sort | machine learning based prediction of ecosystem scale co sub 2 sub flux measurements |
| topic | carbon dioxide flux nature-based climate solutions machine learning XGBoost National Ecological Observatory Network AmeriFlux |
| url | https://www.mdpi.com/2073-445X/14/1/124 |
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