Long-Term Trends in PM<sub>10</sub>, PM<sub>2.5</sub>, and Trace Elements in Ambient Air: Environmental and Health Risks from 2020 to 2024
This study aimed to assess the long-term trends in PM<sub>10</sub>, PM<sub>2.5</sub>, and hazardous trace elements in Makkah from 2020 to 2024, evaluating seasonal variations, health risks, and potential mitigation strategies. The results indicated that the PM<sub>10<...
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MDPI AG
2025-04-01
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| author | Heba M. Adly Saleh A. K. Saleh |
| author_facet | Heba M. Adly Saleh A. K. Saleh |
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| description | This study aimed to assess the long-term trends in PM<sub>10</sub>, PM<sub>2.5</sub>, and hazardous trace elements in Makkah from 2020 to 2024, evaluating seasonal variations, health risks, and potential mitigation strategies. The results indicated that the PM<sub>10</sub> concentrations ranged from a minimum of 127.7 ± 14.2 µg/m<sup>3</sup> (2020) to a maximum of 138.3 ± 15.7 µg/m<sup>3</sup> (2024), while PM<sub>2.5</sub> levels varied between 100.7 ± 18.7 µg/m<sup>3</sup> and 109.8 ± 21.3 µg/m<sup>3</sup>. A seasonal analysis showed the highest PM<sub>10</sub> and PM<sub>2.5</sub> levels during winter (147.8 ± 16.4 µg/m<sup>3</sup> and 119.5 ± 21.7 µg/m<sup>3</sup> in 2024, respectively), coinciding with lower wind speeds and reduced dispersion. Among the nine trace elements analyzed, Cr VI exhibited the highest increase from 0.008 ± 0.001 µg/m<sup>3</sup> (2020) to 0.012 ± 0.001 µg/m<sup>3</sup> (2024), while Cd and Ni also rose significantly. The excess cancer risk (ECR) associated with these pollutants exceeded the recommended threshold, with a strong correlation between PM<sub>10</sub> and ECR (r = 0.85–0.93, <i>p</i> < 0.01). These findings highlight the need for enhanced air quality monitoring and sustainable urban planning. Future research should focus on identifying the dominant pollution sources and assessing the long-term health impacts to support evidence-based air quality management in Makkah. |
| format | Article |
| id | doaj-art-e7bdf95dfdc249f5a7126c630e0cb6aa |
| institution | OA Journals |
| issn | 2073-4433 |
| language | English |
| publishDate | 2025-04-01 |
| publisher | MDPI AG |
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| series | Atmosphere |
| spelling | doaj-art-e7bdf95dfdc249f5a7126c630e0cb6aa2025-08-20T02:28:27ZengMDPI AGAtmosphere2073-44332025-04-0116441510.3390/atmos16040415Long-Term Trends in PM<sub>10</sub>, PM<sub>2.5</sub>, and Trace Elements in Ambient Air: Environmental and Health Risks from 2020 to 2024Heba M. Adly0Saleh A. K. Saleh1Community Medicine and Pilgrims Healthcare Department, College of Medicine, Umm Al-Qura University, Makkah 21955, Saudi ArabiaBiochemistry Department, College of Medicine, Umm Al-Qura University, Makkah 21955, Saudi ArabiaThis study aimed to assess the long-term trends in PM<sub>10</sub>, PM<sub>2.5</sub>, and hazardous trace elements in Makkah from 2020 to 2024, evaluating seasonal variations, health risks, and potential mitigation strategies. The results indicated that the PM<sub>10</sub> concentrations ranged from a minimum of 127.7 ± 14.2 µg/m<sup>3</sup> (2020) to a maximum of 138.3 ± 15.7 µg/m<sup>3</sup> (2024), while PM<sub>2.5</sub> levels varied between 100.7 ± 18.7 µg/m<sup>3</sup> and 109.8 ± 21.3 µg/m<sup>3</sup>. A seasonal analysis showed the highest PM<sub>10</sub> and PM<sub>2.5</sub> levels during winter (147.8 ± 16.4 µg/m<sup>3</sup> and 119.5 ± 21.7 µg/m<sup>3</sup> in 2024, respectively), coinciding with lower wind speeds and reduced dispersion. Among the nine trace elements analyzed, Cr VI exhibited the highest increase from 0.008 ± 0.001 µg/m<sup>3</sup> (2020) to 0.012 ± 0.001 µg/m<sup>3</sup> (2024), while Cd and Ni also rose significantly. The excess cancer risk (ECR) associated with these pollutants exceeded the recommended threshold, with a strong correlation between PM<sub>10</sub> and ECR (r = 0.85–0.93, <i>p</i> < 0.01). These findings highlight the need for enhanced air quality monitoring and sustainable urban planning. Future research should focus on identifying the dominant pollution sources and assessing the long-term health impacts to support evidence-based air quality management in Makkah.https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4433/16/4/415air pollutionfine particulate matter (PM<sub>2.5</sub>)coarse particulate matter (PM<sub>10</sub>)trace elementshealth impacts |
| spellingShingle | Heba M. Adly Saleh A. K. Saleh Long-Term Trends in PM<sub>10</sub>, PM<sub>2.5</sub>, and Trace Elements in Ambient Air: Environmental and Health Risks from 2020 to 2024 Atmosphere air pollution fine particulate matter (PM<sub>2.5</sub>) coarse particulate matter (PM<sub>10</sub>) trace elements health impacts |
| title | Long-Term Trends in PM<sub>10</sub>, PM<sub>2.5</sub>, and Trace Elements in Ambient Air: Environmental and Health Risks from 2020 to 2024 |
| title_full | Long-Term Trends in PM<sub>10</sub>, PM<sub>2.5</sub>, and Trace Elements in Ambient Air: Environmental and Health Risks from 2020 to 2024 |
| title_fullStr | Long-Term Trends in PM<sub>10</sub>, PM<sub>2.5</sub>, and Trace Elements in Ambient Air: Environmental and Health Risks from 2020 to 2024 |
| title_full_unstemmed | Long-Term Trends in PM<sub>10</sub>, PM<sub>2.5</sub>, and Trace Elements in Ambient Air: Environmental and Health Risks from 2020 to 2024 |
| title_short | Long-Term Trends in PM<sub>10</sub>, PM<sub>2.5</sub>, and Trace Elements in Ambient Air: Environmental and Health Risks from 2020 to 2024 |
| title_sort | long term trends in pm sub 10 sub pm sub 2 5 sub and trace elements in ambient air environmental and health risks from 2020 to 2024 |
| topic | air pollution fine particulate matter (PM<sub>2.5</sub>) coarse particulate matter (PM<sub>10</sub>) trace elements health impacts |
| url | https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4433/16/4/415 |
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