Non-Invasive Retinal Biomarkers for Early Diagnosis of Alzheimer’s Disease
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder of the brain associated with ageing and is the most prevalent form of dementia, affecting an estimated 55 million people worldwide, with projections suggesting this number will exceed 150 million by 2050. With its increasing preval...
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MDPI AG
2025-01-01
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| author | Snježana Kaštelan Antonela Gverović Antunica Velibor Puzović Ana Didović Pavičić Samir Čanović Petra Kovačević Pia Antonia Franciska Vučemilović Suzana Konjevoda |
| author_facet | Snježana Kaštelan Antonela Gverović Antunica Velibor Puzović Ana Didović Pavičić Samir Čanović Petra Kovačević Pia Antonia Franciska Vučemilović Suzana Konjevoda |
| author_sort | Snježana Kaštelan |
| collection | DOAJ |
| description | Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder of the brain associated with ageing and is the most prevalent form of dementia, affecting an estimated 55 million people worldwide, with projections suggesting this number will exceed 150 million by 2050. With its increasing prevalence, AD represents a significant global health challenge with potentially serious social and economic consequences. Diagnosing AD is particularly challenging as it requires timely recognition. Currently, there is no effective therapy for AD; however, certain medications may help slow its progression. Existing diagnostic methods such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), computed tomography (CT), positron emission tomography (PET), and biomarker analysis in cerebrospinal fluid tend to be expensive and invasive, making them impractical for widespread use. Consequently, research into non-invasive biomarkers that enable early detection and screening for AD is a crucial area of contemporary clinical investigation. One promising approach for the early diagnosis of AD may be retinal imaging. As an extension of the central nervous system, the retina offers a distinctive opportunity for non-invasive brain structure and function assessment. Considering their shared embryological origins and the vascular and immunological similarities between the eye and brain, alterations in the retina may indicate pathological changes in the brain, including those specifically related to AD. Studies suggest that structural and vascular changes in the retina, particularly within the neuronal network and blood vessels, may act as markers of cerebral changes caused by AD. These retinal alterations have the potential to act as biomarkers for early diagnosis. Since AD is typically diagnosed only after a significant neuronal loss has occurred, identifying early diagnostic markers could enable timely intervention and help prevent disease progression. Non-invasive retinal imaging techniques, such as optical coherence tomography (OCT) and OCT angiography, provide accessible methods for the early detection of changes linked to AD. This review article focuses on the potential of retinal imaging as a non-invasive biomarker for early diagnosis of AD. Investigating the ageing of the retina and its connections to neurodegenerative processes could significantly enhance the diagnosis, monitoring, and treatment of AD, paving the way for new diagnostic and therapeutic approaches. |
| format | Article |
| id | doaj-art-e384fa8e6d2a4b288271a3eaae526254 |
| institution | DOAJ |
| issn | 2227-9059 |
| language | English |
| publishDate | 2025-01-01 |
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| spelling | doaj-art-e384fa8e6d2a4b288271a3eaae5262542025-08-20T03:12:08ZengMDPI AGBiomedicines2227-90592025-01-0113228310.3390/biomedicines13020283Non-Invasive Retinal Biomarkers for Early Diagnosis of Alzheimer’s DiseaseSnježana Kaštelan0Antonela Gverović Antunica1Velibor Puzović2Ana Didović Pavičić3Samir Čanović4Petra Kovačević5Pia Antonia Franciska Vučemilović6Suzana Konjevoda7School of Medicine, University of Zagreb, 10000 Zagreb, CroatiaDepartment of Ophthalmology, General Hospital Dubrovnik, 20000 Dubrovnik, CroatiaDepartment of Pathology, General Hospital Dubrovnik, 20000 Dubrovnik, CroatiaDepartment of Ophthalmology, Zadar General Hospital, 23000 Zadar, CroatiaDepartment of Ophthalmology, Zadar General Hospital, 23000 Zadar, CroatiaDepartment of Ophthalmology, University Hospital Center Zagreb, 10000 Zagreb, CroatiaDepartment of Ophthalmology, Zadar General Hospital, 23000 Zadar, CroatiaDepartment of Ophthalmology, Zadar General Hospital, 23000 Zadar, CroatiaAlzheimer’s disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder of the brain associated with ageing and is the most prevalent form of dementia, affecting an estimated 55 million people worldwide, with projections suggesting this number will exceed 150 million by 2050. With its increasing prevalence, AD represents a significant global health challenge with potentially serious social and economic consequences. Diagnosing AD is particularly challenging as it requires timely recognition. Currently, there is no effective therapy for AD; however, certain medications may help slow its progression. Existing diagnostic methods such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), computed tomography (CT), positron emission tomography (PET), and biomarker analysis in cerebrospinal fluid tend to be expensive and invasive, making them impractical for widespread use. Consequently, research into non-invasive biomarkers that enable early detection and screening for AD is a crucial area of contemporary clinical investigation. One promising approach for the early diagnosis of AD may be retinal imaging. As an extension of the central nervous system, the retina offers a distinctive opportunity for non-invasive brain structure and function assessment. Considering their shared embryological origins and the vascular and immunological similarities between the eye and brain, alterations in the retina may indicate pathological changes in the brain, including those specifically related to AD. Studies suggest that structural and vascular changes in the retina, particularly within the neuronal network and blood vessels, may act as markers of cerebral changes caused by AD. These retinal alterations have the potential to act as biomarkers for early diagnosis. Since AD is typically diagnosed only after a significant neuronal loss has occurred, identifying early diagnostic markers could enable timely intervention and help prevent disease progression. Non-invasive retinal imaging techniques, such as optical coherence tomography (OCT) and OCT angiography, provide accessible methods for the early detection of changes linked to AD. This review article focuses on the potential of retinal imaging as a non-invasive biomarker for early diagnosis of AD. Investigating the ageing of the retina and its connections to neurodegenerative processes could significantly enhance the diagnosis, monitoring, and treatment of AD, paving the way for new diagnostic and therapeutic approaches.https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9059/13/2/283Alzheimer’s diseaseretinal biomarkersearly diagnosisoptical coherence tomography (OCT)OCT angiographynon-invasive imaging |
| spellingShingle | Snježana Kaštelan Antonela Gverović Antunica Velibor Puzović Ana Didović Pavičić Samir Čanović Petra Kovačević Pia Antonia Franciska Vučemilović Suzana Konjevoda Non-Invasive Retinal Biomarkers for Early Diagnosis of Alzheimer’s Disease Biomedicines Alzheimer’s disease retinal biomarkers early diagnosis optical coherence tomography (OCT) OCT angiography non-invasive imaging |
| title | Non-Invasive Retinal Biomarkers for Early Diagnosis of Alzheimer’s Disease |
| title_full | Non-Invasive Retinal Biomarkers for Early Diagnosis of Alzheimer’s Disease |
| title_fullStr | Non-Invasive Retinal Biomarkers for Early Diagnosis of Alzheimer’s Disease |
| title_full_unstemmed | Non-Invasive Retinal Biomarkers for Early Diagnosis of Alzheimer’s Disease |
| title_short | Non-Invasive Retinal Biomarkers for Early Diagnosis of Alzheimer’s Disease |
| title_sort | non invasive retinal biomarkers for early diagnosis of alzheimer s disease |
| topic | Alzheimer’s disease retinal biomarkers early diagnosis optical coherence tomography (OCT) OCT angiography non-invasive imaging |
| url | https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9059/13/2/283 |
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