The effects of formula milk on development, nutrient absorption, and immune characteristics of piglets
Abstract Background Breast milk is widely regarded as the optimal nourishment for infants. However, due to physiological or psychosocial factors, many infants do not receive adequate breastfeeding. So, the formula milk is proposed as a substitute of breast milk, and an increasing number of infants a...
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2025-08-01
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| Series: | BMC Genomics |
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| Online Access: | https://doi.org/10.1186/s12864-025-11909-y |
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| author | Chuang Tang Zhengjiang Liu Lu Lu Bo Zeng Zhi Li Ruohan Yang Duoduo Zhang Xiaolan Fan Jiaxue Cao Haohuan Li Jing Sun Jinwei Zhang Xiaoyuan Wei Wei Sun Liangpeng Ge Mingzhou Li Fanli Kong |
| author_facet | Chuang Tang Zhengjiang Liu Lu Lu Bo Zeng Zhi Li Ruohan Yang Duoduo Zhang Xiaolan Fan Jiaxue Cao Haohuan Li Jing Sun Jinwei Zhang Xiaoyuan Wei Wei Sun Liangpeng Ge Mingzhou Li Fanli Kong |
| author_sort | Chuang Tang |
| collection | DOAJ |
| description | Abstract Background Breast milk is widely regarded as the optimal nourishment for infants. However, due to physiological or psychosocial factors, many infants do not receive adequate breastfeeding. So, the formula milk is proposed as a substitute of breast milk, and an increasing number of infants are being formula-fed. Numerous studies have highlighted the difference between breast and formula feeding, but the underlying mechanisms remain elusive. Given the ethical constraints in conducting experimental studies on human breastfeeding, we employed pig, which have similar physiological structure with humans, to examine the impacts of different feeding practices. Results In this study, we found that effects of feeding practices were primarily associated with absorption, immunity, and the intestinal barrier. Compared to breast-fed piglets, formula-fed piglets had higher body weight (P = 3.31 × 10−2), liver weight (P = 6.57 × 10−8) and kidney weight (P = 4.40 × 10−6), but no differences in intestinal villus length and crypt depth. Formula feeding also enhanced the expression of transport genes relate to carbohydrates, amino acids, fatty acids, bile salts, vitamins, water, and calcium. Meanwhile, piglets fed with breast milk and formula milk demonstrated distinct immune characteristics. Breast milk promoted the expression of genes associated with immunity and the intestinal barrier. Breast-fed piglets had higher levels of IgM (P = 1.59 × 10−2), IgG (P = 3.17 × 10−2) and white blood cells (P = 6.72 × 10−3) in serum, as well as higher content of B cells (P = 4.08 × 10−6) and mast cells (P = 2.04 × 10−6) in the intestine. In contrast, formula-fed piglets showed higher levels of CD8+ T cells in intestine (P = 1.49 × 10−4). Conclusions In summary, this study comprehensively investigated the effects of feeding practice on piglet at the molecular level and provided valuable data for the development and application of formula milk. |
| format | Article |
| id | doaj-art-caa36c062f3343878fc6ed11932e2f32 |
| institution | Kabale University |
| issn | 1471-2164 |
| language | English |
| publishDate | 2025-08-01 |
| publisher | BMC |
| record_format | Article |
| series | BMC Genomics |
| spelling | doaj-art-caa36c062f3343878fc6ed11932e2f322025-08-20T03:42:37ZengBMCBMC Genomics1471-21642025-08-0126111210.1186/s12864-025-11909-yThe effects of formula milk on development, nutrient absorption, and immune characteristics of pigletsChuang Tang0Zhengjiang Liu1Lu Lu2Bo Zeng3Zhi Li4Ruohan Yang5Duoduo Zhang6Xiaolan Fan7Jiaxue Cao8Haohuan Li9Jing Sun10Jinwei Zhang11Xiaoyuan Wei12Wei Sun13Liangpeng Ge14Mingzhou Li15Fanli Kong16State Key Laboratory of Swine and Poultry Breeding Industry, Sichuan Agricultural UniversityCollege of Life Science, Sichuan Agricultural UniversityState Key Laboratory of Swine and Poultry Breeding Industry, Sichuan Agricultural UniversityState Key Laboratory of Swine and Poultry Breeding Industry, Sichuan Agricultural UniversityChongqing Academy of Animal Sciences, China,National Center of Technology Innovation for PigCollege of Life Science, Sichuan Agricultural UniversityState Key Laboratory of Swine and Poultry Breeding Industry, Sichuan Agricultural UniversityState Key Laboratory of Swine and Poultry Breeding Industry, Sichuan Agricultural UniversityState Key Laboratory of Swine and Poultry Breeding Industry, Sichuan Agricultural UniversityState Key Laboratory of Swine and Poultry Breeding Industry, Sichuan Agricultural UniversityChongqing Academy of Animal Sciences, China,National Center of Technology Innovation for PigChongqing Academy of Animal Sciences, China,National Center of Technology Innovation for PigDepartment of Internal Medicine, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South FloridaJoint International Research Laboratory of Agriculture and Agri-Product Safety of Ministry of Education of China, International Joint Research Laboratory in Universities of Jiangsu Province of China for Domestic Animal Germplasm Resources and Genetic Improvement, Yangzhou UniversityChongqing Academy of Animal Sciences, China,National Center of Technology Innovation for PigState Key Laboratory of Swine and Poultry Breeding Industry, Sichuan Agricultural UniversityState Key Laboratory of Swine and Poultry Breeding Industry, Sichuan Agricultural UniversityAbstract Background Breast milk is widely regarded as the optimal nourishment for infants. However, due to physiological or psychosocial factors, many infants do not receive adequate breastfeeding. So, the formula milk is proposed as a substitute of breast milk, and an increasing number of infants are being formula-fed. Numerous studies have highlighted the difference between breast and formula feeding, but the underlying mechanisms remain elusive. Given the ethical constraints in conducting experimental studies on human breastfeeding, we employed pig, which have similar physiological structure with humans, to examine the impacts of different feeding practices. Results In this study, we found that effects of feeding practices were primarily associated with absorption, immunity, and the intestinal barrier. Compared to breast-fed piglets, formula-fed piglets had higher body weight (P = 3.31 × 10−2), liver weight (P = 6.57 × 10−8) and kidney weight (P = 4.40 × 10−6), but no differences in intestinal villus length and crypt depth. Formula feeding also enhanced the expression of transport genes relate to carbohydrates, amino acids, fatty acids, bile salts, vitamins, water, and calcium. Meanwhile, piglets fed with breast milk and formula milk demonstrated distinct immune characteristics. Breast milk promoted the expression of genes associated with immunity and the intestinal barrier. Breast-fed piglets had higher levels of IgM (P = 1.59 × 10−2), IgG (P = 3.17 × 10−2) and white blood cells (P = 6.72 × 10−3) in serum, as well as higher content of B cells (P = 4.08 × 10−6) and mast cells (P = 2.04 × 10−6) in the intestine. In contrast, formula-fed piglets showed higher levels of CD8+ T cells in intestine (P = 1.49 × 10−4). Conclusions In summary, this study comprehensively investigated the effects of feeding practice on piglet at the molecular level and provided valuable data for the development and application of formula milk.https://doi.org/10.1186/s12864-025-11909-yBreastfeedingFormula milkPigIntestineAbsorptionIntestinal barrier |
| spellingShingle | Chuang Tang Zhengjiang Liu Lu Lu Bo Zeng Zhi Li Ruohan Yang Duoduo Zhang Xiaolan Fan Jiaxue Cao Haohuan Li Jing Sun Jinwei Zhang Xiaoyuan Wei Wei Sun Liangpeng Ge Mingzhou Li Fanli Kong The effects of formula milk on development, nutrient absorption, and immune characteristics of piglets BMC Genomics Breastfeeding Formula milk Pig Intestine Absorption Intestinal barrier |
| title | The effects of formula milk on development, nutrient absorption, and immune characteristics of piglets |
| title_full | The effects of formula milk on development, nutrient absorption, and immune characteristics of piglets |
| title_fullStr | The effects of formula milk on development, nutrient absorption, and immune characteristics of piglets |
| title_full_unstemmed | The effects of formula milk on development, nutrient absorption, and immune characteristics of piglets |
| title_short | The effects of formula milk on development, nutrient absorption, and immune characteristics of piglets |
| title_sort | effects of formula milk on development nutrient absorption and immune characteristics of piglets |
| topic | Breastfeeding Formula milk Pig Intestine Absorption Intestinal barrier |
| url | https://doi.org/10.1186/s12864-025-11909-y |
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