A Comparative Life Cycle Assessment of an Electric and a Conventional Mid-Segment Car: Evaluating the Role of Critical Raw Materials in Potential Abiotic Resource Depletion
Electric passenger vehicles are set to dominate the European car market, driven by EU climate policies and the 2035 ban on internal combustion engine production. This study assesses the sustainability of this transition, focusing on global warming potential and Critical Raw Material (CRM) extraction...
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MDPI AG
2025-07-01
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| Online Access: | https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/18/14/3698 |
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| author | Andrea Cappelli Nicola Stefano Trimarchi Simone Marzeddu Riccardo Paoli Francesco Romagnoli |
| author_facet | Andrea Cappelli Nicola Stefano Trimarchi Simone Marzeddu Riccardo Paoli Francesco Romagnoli |
| author_sort | Andrea Cappelli |
| collection | DOAJ |
| description | Electric passenger vehicles are set to dominate the European car market, driven by EU climate policies and the 2035 ban on internal combustion engine production. This study assesses the sustainability of this transition, focusing on global warming potential and Critical Raw Material (CRM) extraction throughout its life cycle. The intensive use of CRMs raises environmental, economic, social, and geopolitical concerns. These materials are scarce and are concentrated in a few politically sensitive regions, leaving the EU highly dependent on external suppliers. The extraction, transport, and refining of CRMs and battery production are high-emission processes that contribute to climate change and pose risks to ecosystems and human health. A Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) was conducted, using OpenLCA software and the Ecoinvent 3.10 database, comparing a Peugeot 308 in its diesel and electric versions. This study adopts a cradle-to-grave approach, analyzing three phases: production, utilization, and end-of-life treatment. Key indicators included Global Warming Potential (GWP100) and Abiotic Resource Depletion Potential (ADP) to assess CO<sub>2</sub> emissions and mineral resource consumption. Technological advancements could mitigate mineral depletion concerns. Li-ion battery recycling is still underdeveloped, but has high recovery potential, with the sector expected to expand significantly. Moreover, repurposing used Li-ion batteries for stationary energy storage in renewable energy systems can extend their lifespan by over a decade, decreasing the demand for new batteries. Such innovations underscore the potential for a more sustainable electric vehicle industry. |
| format | Article |
| id | doaj-art-ab30dde4ea7a4096aaf77d838d1b4845 |
| institution | DOAJ |
| issn | 1996-1073 |
| language | English |
| publishDate | 2025-07-01 |
| publisher | MDPI AG |
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| series | Energies |
| spelling | doaj-art-ab30dde4ea7a4096aaf77d838d1b48452025-08-20T03:08:12ZengMDPI AGEnergies1996-10732025-07-011814369810.3390/en18143698A Comparative Life Cycle Assessment of an Electric and a Conventional Mid-Segment Car: Evaluating the Role of Critical Raw Materials in Potential Abiotic Resource DepletionAndrea Cappelli0Nicola Stefano Trimarchi1Simone Marzeddu2Riccardo Paoli3Francesco Romagnoli4Department of Chemical Engineering Materials Environment (DICMA), Faculty of Civil and Industrial Engineering, Sapienza University of Rome, Via Eudossiana 18, 00184 Rome, ItalyDepartment of Chemical Engineering Materials Environment (DICMA), Faculty of Civil and Industrial Engineering, Sapienza University of Rome, Via Eudossiana 18, 00184 Rome, ItalyDepartment of Civil, Constructional and Environmental Engineering (DICEA), Faculty of Civil and Industrial Engineering, Sapienza University of Rome, Via Eudossiana 18, 00184 Rome, ItalyInstitute of Energy Systems and Environment, Riga Technical University, Azenes iela 12/1, LV-1048 Riga, LatviaInstitute of Energy Systems and Environment, Riga Technical University, Azenes iela 12/1, LV-1048 Riga, LatviaElectric passenger vehicles are set to dominate the European car market, driven by EU climate policies and the 2035 ban on internal combustion engine production. This study assesses the sustainability of this transition, focusing on global warming potential and Critical Raw Material (CRM) extraction throughout its life cycle. The intensive use of CRMs raises environmental, economic, social, and geopolitical concerns. These materials are scarce and are concentrated in a few politically sensitive regions, leaving the EU highly dependent on external suppliers. The extraction, transport, and refining of CRMs and battery production are high-emission processes that contribute to climate change and pose risks to ecosystems and human health. A Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) was conducted, using OpenLCA software and the Ecoinvent 3.10 database, comparing a Peugeot 308 in its diesel and electric versions. This study adopts a cradle-to-grave approach, analyzing three phases: production, utilization, and end-of-life treatment. Key indicators included Global Warming Potential (GWP100) and Abiotic Resource Depletion Potential (ADP) to assess CO<sub>2</sub> emissions and mineral resource consumption. Technological advancements could mitigate mineral depletion concerns. Li-ion battery recycling is still underdeveloped, but has high recovery potential, with the sector expected to expand significantly. Moreover, repurposing used Li-ion batteries for stationary energy storage in renewable energy systems can extend their lifespan by over a decade, decreasing the demand for new batteries. Such innovations underscore the potential for a more sustainable electric vehicle industry.https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/18/14/3698life cycle assessmentinternal combustion engine vehicleelectric vehicleCritical Raw Materialsenvironmental impacts |
| spellingShingle | Andrea Cappelli Nicola Stefano Trimarchi Simone Marzeddu Riccardo Paoli Francesco Romagnoli A Comparative Life Cycle Assessment of an Electric and a Conventional Mid-Segment Car: Evaluating the Role of Critical Raw Materials in Potential Abiotic Resource Depletion Energies life cycle assessment internal combustion engine vehicle electric vehicle Critical Raw Materials environmental impacts |
| title | A Comparative Life Cycle Assessment of an Electric and a Conventional Mid-Segment Car: Evaluating the Role of Critical Raw Materials in Potential Abiotic Resource Depletion |
| title_full | A Comparative Life Cycle Assessment of an Electric and a Conventional Mid-Segment Car: Evaluating the Role of Critical Raw Materials in Potential Abiotic Resource Depletion |
| title_fullStr | A Comparative Life Cycle Assessment of an Electric and a Conventional Mid-Segment Car: Evaluating the Role of Critical Raw Materials in Potential Abiotic Resource Depletion |
| title_full_unstemmed | A Comparative Life Cycle Assessment of an Electric and a Conventional Mid-Segment Car: Evaluating the Role of Critical Raw Materials in Potential Abiotic Resource Depletion |
| title_short | A Comparative Life Cycle Assessment of an Electric and a Conventional Mid-Segment Car: Evaluating the Role of Critical Raw Materials in Potential Abiotic Resource Depletion |
| title_sort | comparative life cycle assessment of an electric and a conventional mid segment car evaluating the role of critical raw materials in potential abiotic resource depletion |
| topic | life cycle assessment internal combustion engine vehicle electric vehicle Critical Raw Materials environmental impacts |
| url | https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/18/14/3698 |
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