Volatile Organic Compounds in Early Childhood Education Facilities: Simultaneous Indoor and Outdoor Measurements in the Haifa Bay Area
Indoor air quality (IAQ) is of great importance, as people spend up to 90% of their time indoors, leading to significant exposure to air pollutants. The IAQ in early childhood education (ECE) facilities is of particular interest since young children are more vulnerable and poor air quality may have...
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MDPI AG
2025-02-01
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| Online Access: | https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4433/16/2/181 |
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| author | Ran Darzi Merav Bareket Yuval Yael Dubowski |
| author_facet | Ran Darzi Merav Bareket Yuval Yael Dubowski |
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| description | Indoor air quality (IAQ) is of great importance, as people spend up to 90% of their time indoors, leading to significant exposure to air pollutants. The IAQ in early childhood education (ECE) facilities is of particular interest since young children are more vulnerable and poor air quality may have possible long-lasting impacts on them. In the present study, simultaneous indoor and outdoor VOC measurements were carried out in three ECE facilities in the Haifa Bay area, Israel. Three sampling campaigns were utilized, each lasted for a minimum of one week, encompassing four consecutive working days and at least one weekend. During working days, sampling was performed during daytime activity hours and at nighttime (off hours). Twenty-three VOCs were identified, quantified, and classified into six chemical groups—aromatic hydrocarbons, aliphatic alkanes, terpenes, alcohols, carbonyls, and “others”. The total outdoor VOC concentration was 23 μg m<sup>−3</sup> during the daytime and 22 μg m<sup>−3</sup> at night, with carbonyls and aromatic hydrocarbons accounting for ~80% of it. Despite the heterogeneity of the study area, outdoor concentrations depicted a smaller spatial and temporal variability than was observed indoors. In the ECE facilities, the total VOC reached 134 and 204 μg m<sup>−3</sup> during the daytime and nighttime, respectively, and were strongly impacted by the air exchange rate. Carbonyls, alcohols, and terpenes were more prevalent indoors, accounting for 77.5–81.1% of the total. Their high indoor/outdoor ratios, especially for formaldehyde and limonene, suggest a significant contribution from indoor emission sources. Exposure calculations were compared to reference values for carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic effects. While the lifetime average daily dose (LADD) did not exceed the available reference values, the upper-limit estimates of continuous lifetime exposure to measured indoor levels indicate that formaldehyde and acetaldehyde surpassed their respective limits by factors of 10 and 3, respectively. |
| format | Article |
| id | doaj-art-a1fcc3a271e24821a433f6cc32590f4e |
| institution | DOAJ |
| issn | 2073-4433 |
| language | English |
| publishDate | 2025-02-01 |
| publisher | MDPI AG |
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| series | Atmosphere |
| spelling | doaj-art-a1fcc3a271e24821a433f6cc32590f4e2025-08-20T03:12:05ZengMDPI AGAtmosphere2073-44332025-02-0116218110.3390/atmos16020181Volatile Organic Compounds in Early Childhood Education Facilities: Simultaneous Indoor and Outdoor Measurements in the Haifa Bay AreaRan Darzi0Merav Bareket1Yuval2Yael Dubowski3Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Technion, Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa 32000, IsraelFaculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Technion, Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa 32000, IsraelFaculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Technion, Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa 32000, IsraelFaculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Technion, Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa 32000, IsraelIndoor air quality (IAQ) is of great importance, as people spend up to 90% of their time indoors, leading to significant exposure to air pollutants. The IAQ in early childhood education (ECE) facilities is of particular interest since young children are more vulnerable and poor air quality may have possible long-lasting impacts on them. In the present study, simultaneous indoor and outdoor VOC measurements were carried out in three ECE facilities in the Haifa Bay area, Israel. Three sampling campaigns were utilized, each lasted for a minimum of one week, encompassing four consecutive working days and at least one weekend. During working days, sampling was performed during daytime activity hours and at nighttime (off hours). Twenty-three VOCs were identified, quantified, and classified into six chemical groups—aromatic hydrocarbons, aliphatic alkanes, terpenes, alcohols, carbonyls, and “others”. The total outdoor VOC concentration was 23 μg m<sup>−3</sup> during the daytime and 22 μg m<sup>−3</sup> at night, with carbonyls and aromatic hydrocarbons accounting for ~80% of it. Despite the heterogeneity of the study area, outdoor concentrations depicted a smaller spatial and temporal variability than was observed indoors. In the ECE facilities, the total VOC reached 134 and 204 μg m<sup>−3</sup> during the daytime and nighttime, respectively, and were strongly impacted by the air exchange rate. Carbonyls, alcohols, and terpenes were more prevalent indoors, accounting for 77.5–81.1% of the total. Their high indoor/outdoor ratios, especially for formaldehyde and limonene, suggest a significant contribution from indoor emission sources. Exposure calculations were compared to reference values for carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic effects. While the lifetime average daily dose (LADD) did not exceed the available reference values, the upper-limit estimates of continuous lifetime exposure to measured indoor levels indicate that formaldehyde and acetaldehyde surpassed their respective limits by factors of 10 and 3, respectively.https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4433/16/2/181indoor air qualityvolatile organic compoundsearly childhood facilitiesexposure dose |
| spellingShingle | Ran Darzi Merav Bareket Yuval Yael Dubowski Volatile Organic Compounds in Early Childhood Education Facilities: Simultaneous Indoor and Outdoor Measurements in the Haifa Bay Area Atmosphere indoor air quality volatile organic compounds early childhood facilities exposure dose |
| title | Volatile Organic Compounds in Early Childhood Education Facilities: Simultaneous Indoor and Outdoor Measurements in the Haifa Bay Area |
| title_full | Volatile Organic Compounds in Early Childhood Education Facilities: Simultaneous Indoor and Outdoor Measurements in the Haifa Bay Area |
| title_fullStr | Volatile Organic Compounds in Early Childhood Education Facilities: Simultaneous Indoor and Outdoor Measurements in the Haifa Bay Area |
| title_full_unstemmed | Volatile Organic Compounds in Early Childhood Education Facilities: Simultaneous Indoor and Outdoor Measurements in the Haifa Bay Area |
| title_short | Volatile Organic Compounds in Early Childhood Education Facilities: Simultaneous Indoor and Outdoor Measurements in the Haifa Bay Area |
| title_sort | volatile organic compounds in early childhood education facilities simultaneous indoor and outdoor measurements in the haifa bay area |
| topic | indoor air quality volatile organic compounds early childhood facilities exposure dose |
| url | https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4433/16/2/181 |
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