The New CAP Theorem on Blockchain Consensus Systems
One of the most emblematic theorems in the theory of distributed databases is Eric Brewer’s CAP theorem. It stresses the tradeoffs between Consistency, Availability, and Partition and states that it is impossible to guarantee all three of them simultaneously. Inspired by this, we introduce the new C...
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MDPI AG
2025-04-01
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| Series: | Future Internet |
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| Online Access: | https://www.mdpi.com/1999-5903/17/4/157 |
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| author | Aristidis G. Anagnostakis Euripidis Glavas |
| author_facet | Aristidis G. Anagnostakis Euripidis Glavas |
| author_sort | Aristidis G. Anagnostakis |
| collection | DOAJ |
| description | One of the most emblematic theorems in the theory of distributed databases is Eric Brewer’s CAP theorem. It stresses the tradeoffs between Consistency, Availability, and Partition and states that it is impossible to guarantee all three of them simultaneously. Inspired by this, we introduce the new CAP theorem for autonomous consensus systems, and we demonstrate that, at most, two of the three elementary properties, Consensus achievement (C), Autonomy (A), and entropic Performance (P) can be optimized simultaneously in the generic case. This provides a theoretical limit to Blockchain systems’ decentralization, impacting their scalability, security, and real-world adoption. To formalize and analyze this tradeoff, we utilize the IoT micro-Blockchain as a universal, minimal, consensus-enabling framework. We define a set of quantitative functions relating each of the properties to the number of event witnesses in the system. We identify the existing mutual exclusions, and formally prove for one homogenous system consideration, that (A), (C), and (P) cannot be optimized simultaneously. This suggests that a requirement for concurrent optimization of the three properties cannot be satisfied in the generic case and reveals an intrinsic limitation on the design and the optimization of distributed Blockchain consensus mechanisms. Our findings are formally proved utilizing the IoT micro-Blockchain framework and validated through the empirical data benchmarking of large-scale Blockchain systems, i.e., Bitcoin, Ethereum, and Hyperledger Fabric. |
| format | Article |
| id | doaj-art-9b14f337f78d4e9892a9a41d6fbf8a5d |
| institution | DOAJ |
| issn | 1999-5903 |
| language | English |
| publishDate | 2025-04-01 |
| publisher | MDPI AG |
| record_format | Article |
| series | Future Internet |
| spelling | doaj-art-9b14f337f78d4e9892a9a41d6fbf8a5d2025-08-20T03:13:58ZengMDPI AGFuture Internet1999-59032025-04-0117415710.3390/fi17040157The New CAP Theorem on Blockchain Consensus SystemsAristidis G. Anagnostakis0Euripidis Glavas1School of Finance and Administrative Sciences, University of Ioannina Greece, 45110 Ioannina, GreeceSchool of Informatics and Telecommunications, University of Ioannina Greece, 47100 Arta, GreeceOne of the most emblematic theorems in the theory of distributed databases is Eric Brewer’s CAP theorem. It stresses the tradeoffs between Consistency, Availability, and Partition and states that it is impossible to guarantee all three of them simultaneously. Inspired by this, we introduce the new CAP theorem for autonomous consensus systems, and we demonstrate that, at most, two of the three elementary properties, Consensus achievement (C), Autonomy (A), and entropic Performance (P) can be optimized simultaneously in the generic case. This provides a theoretical limit to Blockchain systems’ decentralization, impacting their scalability, security, and real-world adoption. To formalize and analyze this tradeoff, we utilize the IoT micro-Blockchain as a universal, minimal, consensus-enabling framework. We define a set of quantitative functions relating each of the properties to the number of event witnesses in the system. We identify the existing mutual exclusions, and formally prove for one homogenous system consideration, that (A), (C), and (P) cannot be optimized simultaneously. This suggests that a requirement for concurrent optimization of the three properties cannot be satisfied in the generic case and reveals an intrinsic limitation on the design and the optimization of distributed Blockchain consensus mechanisms. Our findings are formally proved utilizing the IoT micro-Blockchain framework and validated through the empirical data benchmarking of large-scale Blockchain systems, i.e., Bitcoin, Ethereum, and Hyperledger Fabric.https://www.mdpi.com/1999-5903/17/4/157Blockchain consensusBlockchain efficiencyBlockchain optimizationautonomous systemsdistributed systemsBlockchain consumption |
| spellingShingle | Aristidis G. Anagnostakis Euripidis Glavas The New CAP Theorem on Blockchain Consensus Systems Future Internet Blockchain consensus Blockchain efficiency Blockchain optimization autonomous systems distributed systems Blockchain consumption |
| title | The New CAP Theorem on Blockchain Consensus Systems |
| title_full | The New CAP Theorem on Blockchain Consensus Systems |
| title_fullStr | The New CAP Theorem on Blockchain Consensus Systems |
| title_full_unstemmed | The New CAP Theorem on Blockchain Consensus Systems |
| title_short | The New CAP Theorem on Blockchain Consensus Systems |
| title_sort | new cap theorem on blockchain consensus systems |
| topic | Blockchain consensus Blockchain efficiency Blockchain optimization autonomous systems distributed systems Blockchain consumption |
| url | https://www.mdpi.com/1999-5903/17/4/157 |
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