West Nile Virus (Orthoflavivirus nilense) RNA concentrations in wastewater solids at five wastewater treatment plants in the United States
Background Orthoflavivirus nilense, formerly known as West Nile Virus (WNV), has become endemic to the United States since its introduction in 1999. Current surveillance methods rely primarily on mosquito pool testing, which is both costly and time-intensive. Wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) has...
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PeerJ Inc.
2025-07-01
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| author | Alessandro Zulli Dorothea Duong Bridgette Shelden Amanda Bidwell Marlene K. Wolfe Bradley White Alexandria B. Boehm |
| author_facet | Alessandro Zulli Dorothea Duong Bridgette Shelden Amanda Bidwell Marlene K. Wolfe Bradley White Alexandria B. Boehm |
| author_sort | Alessandro Zulli |
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| description | Background Orthoflavivirus nilense, formerly known as West Nile Virus (WNV), has become endemic to the United States since its introduction in 1999. Current surveillance methods rely primarily on mosquito pool testing, which is both costly and time-intensive. Wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) has proven an effective method for the surveillance of various pathogens, including other orthoflaviviruses such as Dengue. WBE for WNV represents a potentially valuable surveillance approach that has so far been underexplored. Methods A targeted droplet digital reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) approach (ddRT-PCR) was used to measure WNV concentrations in wastewater retrospectively from five locations and in over 600 samples. Three of these locations were in communities with multiple confirmed WNV infections, while two were not. Samples were collected during periods corresponding to typical WNV seasonality (spring to fall). SARS-CoV-2 RNA was measured simultaneously to assess nucleic acid degradation during sample storage. Publicly available confirmed WNV case data were compiled from the California and Nebraska departments of public health and their weekly arboviral reports. Results WNV RNA was detected in wastewater samples during periods of known viral circulation within a community. The adopted ddRT-PCR assay is highly specific and sensitive, and detections in wastewater solids correspond to the occurrence of cases in the season and location of sampling. WNV was detected in nine samples in three locations with known WNV clinical cases—wastewater positivity rates in these locations ranged from 3.3% to 13%. The results suggest that wastewater monitoring could serve as an effective complement to traditional surveillance methods, particularly for sentinel surveillance in locations which do not have extensive mosquito and clinical testing systems. |
| format | Article |
| id | doaj-art-80e5e46a2b3143899cc7e8ad78f7eac5 |
| institution | DOAJ |
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| language | English |
| publishDate | 2025-07-01 |
| publisher | PeerJ Inc. |
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| spelling | doaj-art-80e5e46a2b3143899cc7e8ad78f7eac52025-08-20T02:47:22ZengPeerJ Inc.PeerJ2167-83592025-07-0113e1974810.7717/peerj.19748West Nile Virus (Orthoflavivirus nilense) RNA concentrations in wastewater solids at five wastewater treatment plants in the United StatesAlessandro Zulli0Dorothea Duong1Bridgette Shelden2Amanda Bidwell3Marlene K. Wolfe4Bradley White5Alexandria B. Boehm6Civil & Environmental Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, United States of AmericaVerily Life Sciences, South San Francisco, CA, United States of AmericaVerily Life Sciences, South San Francisco, CA, United States of AmericaCivil & Environmental Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, United States of AmericaGangarosa Department of Environmental Health, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory, Emory University, Atlanta, United States of AmericaVerily Life Sciences, South San Francisco, CA, United States of AmericaCivil & Environmental Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, United States of AmericaBackground Orthoflavivirus nilense, formerly known as West Nile Virus (WNV), has become endemic to the United States since its introduction in 1999. Current surveillance methods rely primarily on mosquito pool testing, which is both costly and time-intensive. Wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) has proven an effective method for the surveillance of various pathogens, including other orthoflaviviruses such as Dengue. WBE for WNV represents a potentially valuable surveillance approach that has so far been underexplored. Methods A targeted droplet digital reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) approach (ddRT-PCR) was used to measure WNV concentrations in wastewater retrospectively from five locations and in over 600 samples. Three of these locations were in communities with multiple confirmed WNV infections, while two were not. Samples were collected during periods corresponding to typical WNV seasonality (spring to fall). SARS-CoV-2 RNA was measured simultaneously to assess nucleic acid degradation during sample storage. Publicly available confirmed WNV case data were compiled from the California and Nebraska departments of public health and their weekly arboviral reports. Results WNV RNA was detected in wastewater samples during periods of known viral circulation within a community. The adopted ddRT-PCR assay is highly specific and sensitive, and detections in wastewater solids correspond to the occurrence of cases in the season and location of sampling. WNV was detected in nine samples in three locations with known WNV clinical cases—wastewater positivity rates in these locations ranged from 3.3% to 13%. The results suggest that wastewater monitoring could serve as an effective complement to traditional surveillance methods, particularly for sentinel surveillance in locations which do not have extensive mosquito and clinical testing systems.https://peerj.com/articles/19748.pdfWest Nile VirusWastewaterWasteater-based epidemiology |
| spellingShingle | Alessandro Zulli Dorothea Duong Bridgette Shelden Amanda Bidwell Marlene K. Wolfe Bradley White Alexandria B. Boehm West Nile Virus (Orthoflavivirus nilense) RNA concentrations in wastewater solids at five wastewater treatment plants in the United States PeerJ West Nile Virus Wastewater Wasteater-based epidemiology |
| title | West Nile Virus (Orthoflavivirus nilense) RNA concentrations in wastewater solids at five wastewater treatment plants in the United States |
| title_full | West Nile Virus (Orthoflavivirus nilense) RNA concentrations in wastewater solids at five wastewater treatment plants in the United States |
| title_fullStr | West Nile Virus (Orthoflavivirus nilense) RNA concentrations in wastewater solids at five wastewater treatment plants in the United States |
| title_full_unstemmed | West Nile Virus (Orthoflavivirus nilense) RNA concentrations in wastewater solids at five wastewater treatment plants in the United States |
| title_short | West Nile Virus (Orthoflavivirus nilense) RNA concentrations in wastewater solids at five wastewater treatment plants in the United States |
| title_sort | west nile virus orthoflavivirus nilense rna concentrations in wastewater solids at five wastewater treatment plants in the united states |
| topic | West Nile Virus Wastewater Wasteater-based epidemiology |
| url | https://peerj.com/articles/19748.pdf |
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