Impact of Different Thermal Processing Techniques on the Phytochemical Composition, Antioxidant Capacity, and DNA-Protective Properties of Broccoli
Vegetables are usually thermally processed before consumption to improve their flavor and safety. In this work, the effect of boiling (BO), blanching (BL), steaming (ST), air-frying (AF), and pan-frying (PF)on the nutritional value and bioactivity of broccoli (<i>Brassica oleracea</i> va...
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2025-07-01
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| author | Karlo Miškec Marta Frlin Ivana Šola |
| author_facet | Karlo Miškec Marta Frlin Ivana Šola |
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| description | Vegetables are usually thermally processed before consumption to improve their flavor and safety. In this work, the effect of boiling (BO), blanching (BL), steaming (ST), air-frying (AF), and pan-frying (PF)on the nutritional value and bioactivity of broccoli (<i>Brassica oleracea</i> var. <i>italica</i>) heads was investigated, including a comparative analysis of the tissue and the cooking water remaining after the treatments. Using spectrophotometric methods, AF broccoli was found to have the highest levels (<i>p</i> ≤ 0.05) of hydroxycinnamic acids (1.58 ± 0.71 mg CAE/g fw), total glucosinolates (3.76 ± 2.09 mg SinE/g fw), carotenoids (6.73 ± 2.89 mg/kg fw), and lycopene (0.91 ± 0.19 mg/kg fw). Steamed and AF broccoli had the highest total phenolics (0.72 ± 0.12 mg GAE/g fw and 0.65 ± 0.15 mg GAE/g fw, respectively; <i>p</i> ≤ 0.05). ST broccoli also had the highest levels of soluble sugars (11.04 ± 2.45 mg SucE/g fw) and total tannins (0.46 ± 0.19 mg GAE/g fw). The water remaining after cooking broccoli (BOW) had the highest total flavonoids (2.72 ± 0.59 mg QE/g fw) and antioxidant capacity (ABTS and FRAP, 57.57 ± 18.22% and 79.34 ± 3.28%, respectively; <i>p</i> ≤ 0.05). The DPPH assay showed that AF (36.12 ± 15.71%) and ST (35.48 ± 2.28%) had the strongest antioxidant potential. DNA nicking assay showed that BOW and BLW were the most effective in preserving plasmid DNA supercoiled form (99.51% and 94.81%, respectively; <i>p</i> ≤ 0.05). These results demonstrate that thermal processing significantly affects the phytochemical composition and functional properties of broccoli, with steaming and air-frying generally preserving the highest nutritional quality. Additionally, cooking water, often discarded, retains high levels of bioactive compounds and exhibits strong antioxidant and DNA-protective effects. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to investigate how different thermal processing techniques of vegetables influence their ability to protect plasmid DNA structure. Furthermore, this is the first study to compare the DNA-protective effects of broccoli tissue extracts and the water remaining after cooking broccoli. |
| format | Article |
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| spelling | doaj-art-7c00f8a67db442c9b61ebc61fe88566f2025-08-20T02:35:46ZengMDPI AGApplied Sciences2076-34172025-07-011513746910.3390/app15137469Impact of Different Thermal Processing Techniques on the Phytochemical Composition, Antioxidant Capacity, and DNA-Protective Properties of BroccoliKarlo Miškec0Marta Frlin1Ivana Šola2Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, University of Zagreb, Horvatovac 102a, 10000 Zagreb, CroatiaDepartment of Biology, Faculty of Science, University of Zagreb, Horvatovac 102a, 10000 Zagreb, CroatiaDepartment of Biology, Faculty of Science, University of Zagreb, Horvatovac 102a, 10000 Zagreb, CroatiaVegetables are usually thermally processed before consumption to improve their flavor and safety. In this work, the effect of boiling (BO), blanching (BL), steaming (ST), air-frying (AF), and pan-frying (PF)on the nutritional value and bioactivity of broccoli (<i>Brassica oleracea</i> var. <i>italica</i>) heads was investigated, including a comparative analysis of the tissue and the cooking water remaining after the treatments. Using spectrophotometric methods, AF broccoli was found to have the highest levels (<i>p</i> ≤ 0.05) of hydroxycinnamic acids (1.58 ± 0.71 mg CAE/g fw), total glucosinolates (3.76 ± 2.09 mg SinE/g fw), carotenoids (6.73 ± 2.89 mg/kg fw), and lycopene (0.91 ± 0.19 mg/kg fw). Steamed and AF broccoli had the highest total phenolics (0.72 ± 0.12 mg GAE/g fw and 0.65 ± 0.15 mg GAE/g fw, respectively; <i>p</i> ≤ 0.05). ST broccoli also had the highest levels of soluble sugars (11.04 ± 2.45 mg SucE/g fw) and total tannins (0.46 ± 0.19 mg GAE/g fw). The water remaining after cooking broccoli (BOW) had the highest total flavonoids (2.72 ± 0.59 mg QE/g fw) and antioxidant capacity (ABTS and FRAP, 57.57 ± 18.22% and 79.34 ± 3.28%, respectively; <i>p</i> ≤ 0.05). The DPPH assay showed that AF (36.12 ± 15.71%) and ST (35.48 ± 2.28%) had the strongest antioxidant potential. DNA nicking assay showed that BOW and BLW were the most effective in preserving plasmid DNA supercoiled form (99.51% and 94.81%, respectively; <i>p</i> ≤ 0.05). These results demonstrate that thermal processing significantly affects the phytochemical composition and functional properties of broccoli, with steaming and air-frying generally preserving the highest nutritional quality. Additionally, cooking water, often discarded, retains high levels of bioactive compounds and exhibits strong antioxidant and DNA-protective effects. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to investigate how different thermal processing techniques of vegetables influence their ability to protect plasmid DNA structure. Furthermore, this is the first study to compare the DNA-protective effects of broccoli tissue extracts and the water remaining after cooking broccoli.https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/15/13/7469air-frying<i>Brassicaceae</i>DNA nickingglucosinolatesheat treatmentnutritional quality |
| spellingShingle | Karlo Miškec Marta Frlin Ivana Šola Impact of Different Thermal Processing Techniques on the Phytochemical Composition, Antioxidant Capacity, and DNA-Protective Properties of Broccoli Applied Sciences air-frying <i>Brassicaceae</i> DNA nicking glucosinolates heat treatment nutritional quality |
| title | Impact of Different Thermal Processing Techniques on the Phytochemical Composition, Antioxidant Capacity, and DNA-Protective Properties of Broccoli |
| title_full | Impact of Different Thermal Processing Techniques on the Phytochemical Composition, Antioxidant Capacity, and DNA-Protective Properties of Broccoli |
| title_fullStr | Impact of Different Thermal Processing Techniques on the Phytochemical Composition, Antioxidant Capacity, and DNA-Protective Properties of Broccoli |
| title_full_unstemmed | Impact of Different Thermal Processing Techniques on the Phytochemical Composition, Antioxidant Capacity, and DNA-Protective Properties of Broccoli |
| title_short | Impact of Different Thermal Processing Techniques on the Phytochemical Composition, Antioxidant Capacity, and DNA-Protective Properties of Broccoli |
| title_sort | impact of different thermal processing techniques on the phytochemical composition antioxidant capacity and dna protective properties of broccoli |
| topic | air-frying <i>Brassicaceae</i> DNA nicking glucosinolates heat treatment nutritional quality |
| url | https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/15/13/7469 |
| work_keys_str_mv | AT karlomiskec impactofdifferentthermalprocessingtechniquesonthephytochemicalcompositionantioxidantcapacityanddnaprotectivepropertiesofbroccoli AT martafrlin impactofdifferentthermalprocessingtechniquesonthephytochemicalcompositionantioxidantcapacityanddnaprotectivepropertiesofbroccoli AT ivanasola impactofdifferentthermalprocessingtechniquesonthephytochemicalcompositionantioxidantcapacityanddnaprotectivepropertiesofbroccoli |