Lineage Diversification and Population Dynamics of the Qinghai Toad-Headed Agama (<i>Phrynocephalus vlangalii</i>) on the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau, with Particular Attention to the Northern Slope of the Kunlun–Arjin Mountains
The Kunlun, Arjin, and Qilian mountain ranges mark the northern edge of the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau (QTP), where rapid uplift and Quaternary glacial cycles have shaped a unique cold desert ecosystem and species distribution. Despite sampling challenges, phylogeographic studies are crucial for understa...
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2025-01-01
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| author | Rui Xu Qi Song Dali Chen Xianguang Guo |
| author_facet | Rui Xu Qi Song Dali Chen Xianguang Guo |
| author_sort | Rui Xu |
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| description | The Kunlun, Arjin, and Qilian mountain ranges mark the northern edge of the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau (QTP), where rapid uplift and Quaternary glacial cycles have shaped a unique cold desert ecosystem and species distribution. Despite sampling challenges, phylogeographic studies are crucial for understanding reptile populations such as the Qinghai toad-headed agama (<i>Phrynocephalus vlangalii</i>), a viviparous lizard with limited dispersal and multiple subspecies in the northeastern QTP. Our fieldwork identified populations of <i>P. vlangalii</i> on the northern slope of the Kunlun–Arjin Mountains, similar to the controversial subspecies <i>P. v. lidskii</i>. We analyzed 130 individuals from the northern slope of the Kunlun–Arjin–Qilian Mountains and 253 individuals from GenBank, using three mitochondrial genes and two nuclear genes to assess intraspecific differentiation and demographic history. We found high haplotype diversity and low nucleotide diversity in <i>P. vlangalii</i>, with phylogenetic analyses revealing six distinct clades. Clade VI, confirmed as <i>P. v. lidskii</i>, and Clade IV, a new genetic lineage, were identified alongside three recognized subspecies. Genetic variation was largely attributed to clade splitting, indicating significant divergence. The Mantel test indicated that geographical and environmental factors drove population differentiation. Bayesian molecular clock analysis suggested that the most recent common ancestor of <i>P. vlangalii</i> lived 2.55 million years ago, influenced by the Qinghai–Tibet Movement and glacial cycles. Demographic history and ecological niche modeling (ENM) indicated no population decline during the Last Glacial Maximum, supporting the glacial maximum expansion model, with ENM predicting future habitat expansion for <i>P. vlangalii</i>. In addition, morphological data from 13 meristic and 15 metric characters confirmed clade differences. Our findings significantly advance our understanding of <i>P. vlangalii</i> diversification, population dynamics and response to geological and climatic changes in the QTP. |
| format | Article |
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| institution | DOAJ |
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| language | English |
| publishDate | 2025-01-01 |
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| spelling | doaj-art-76a50f07549a47afb46e2ce164cdc6992025-08-20T02:48:01ZengMDPI AGAnimals2076-26152025-01-0115340010.3390/ani15030400Lineage Diversification and Population Dynamics of the Qinghai Toad-Headed Agama (<i>Phrynocephalus vlangalii</i>) on the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau, with Particular Attention to the Northern Slope of the Kunlun–Arjin MountainsRui Xu0Qi Song1Dali Chen2Xianguang Guo3Chengdu Institute of Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chengdu 610213, ChinaChengdu Library and Information Center, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chengdu 610299, ChinaDepartment of Pathogenic Biology, West China School of Basic Medical Sciences and Forensic Medicine, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, ChinaChengdu Institute of Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chengdu 610213, ChinaThe Kunlun, Arjin, and Qilian mountain ranges mark the northern edge of the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau (QTP), where rapid uplift and Quaternary glacial cycles have shaped a unique cold desert ecosystem and species distribution. Despite sampling challenges, phylogeographic studies are crucial for understanding reptile populations such as the Qinghai toad-headed agama (<i>Phrynocephalus vlangalii</i>), a viviparous lizard with limited dispersal and multiple subspecies in the northeastern QTP. Our fieldwork identified populations of <i>P. vlangalii</i> on the northern slope of the Kunlun–Arjin Mountains, similar to the controversial subspecies <i>P. v. lidskii</i>. We analyzed 130 individuals from the northern slope of the Kunlun–Arjin–Qilian Mountains and 253 individuals from GenBank, using three mitochondrial genes and two nuclear genes to assess intraspecific differentiation and demographic history. We found high haplotype diversity and low nucleotide diversity in <i>P. vlangalii</i>, with phylogenetic analyses revealing six distinct clades. Clade VI, confirmed as <i>P. v. lidskii</i>, and Clade IV, a new genetic lineage, were identified alongside three recognized subspecies. Genetic variation was largely attributed to clade splitting, indicating significant divergence. The Mantel test indicated that geographical and environmental factors drove population differentiation. Bayesian molecular clock analysis suggested that the most recent common ancestor of <i>P. vlangalii</i> lived 2.55 million years ago, influenced by the Qinghai–Tibet Movement and glacial cycles. Demographic history and ecological niche modeling (ENM) indicated no population decline during the Last Glacial Maximum, supporting the glacial maximum expansion model, with ENM predicting future habitat expansion for <i>P. vlangalii</i>. In addition, morphological data from 13 meristic and 15 metric characters confirmed clade differences. Our findings significantly advance our understanding of <i>P. vlangalii</i> diversification, population dynamics and response to geological and climatic changes in the QTP.https://www.mdpi.com/2076-2615/15/3/400<i>Phrynocephalus</i>genetic diversitymorphological charactersecological niche modelingcryptic diversityphylogeography |
| spellingShingle | Rui Xu Qi Song Dali Chen Xianguang Guo Lineage Diversification and Population Dynamics of the Qinghai Toad-Headed Agama (<i>Phrynocephalus vlangalii</i>) on the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau, with Particular Attention to the Northern Slope of the Kunlun–Arjin Mountains Animals <i>Phrynocephalus</i> genetic diversity morphological characters ecological niche modeling cryptic diversity phylogeography |
| title | Lineage Diversification and Population Dynamics of the Qinghai Toad-Headed Agama (<i>Phrynocephalus vlangalii</i>) on the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau, with Particular Attention to the Northern Slope of the Kunlun–Arjin Mountains |
| title_full | Lineage Diversification and Population Dynamics of the Qinghai Toad-Headed Agama (<i>Phrynocephalus vlangalii</i>) on the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau, with Particular Attention to the Northern Slope of the Kunlun–Arjin Mountains |
| title_fullStr | Lineage Diversification and Population Dynamics of the Qinghai Toad-Headed Agama (<i>Phrynocephalus vlangalii</i>) on the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau, with Particular Attention to the Northern Slope of the Kunlun–Arjin Mountains |
| title_full_unstemmed | Lineage Diversification and Population Dynamics of the Qinghai Toad-Headed Agama (<i>Phrynocephalus vlangalii</i>) on the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau, with Particular Attention to the Northern Slope of the Kunlun–Arjin Mountains |
| title_short | Lineage Diversification and Population Dynamics of the Qinghai Toad-Headed Agama (<i>Phrynocephalus vlangalii</i>) on the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau, with Particular Attention to the Northern Slope of the Kunlun–Arjin Mountains |
| title_sort | lineage diversification and population dynamics of the qinghai toad headed agama i phrynocephalus vlangalii i on the qinghai tibet plateau with particular attention to the northern slope of the kunlun arjin mountains |
| topic | <i>Phrynocephalus</i> genetic diversity morphological characters ecological niche modeling cryptic diversity phylogeography |
| url | https://www.mdpi.com/2076-2615/15/3/400 |
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