Long-term impact of COVID-19 pandemic on fear of COVID-19 and psychological distress among the general population in Japan: a longitudinal study
Objectives The long-term impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the mental health issues of the general population in Japan is unclear. Thus, we examined the long-term effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on fear of COVID-19 and psychological distress and determined their causal relationships among the gene...
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BMJ Publishing Group
2024-12-01
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| Series: | BMJ Open |
| Online Access: | https://bmjopen.bmj.com/content/14/12/e084158.full |
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| author | Hironori Yada Ryo Odachi Keiichiro Adachi |
| author_facet | Hironori Yada Ryo Odachi Keiichiro Adachi |
| author_sort | Hironori Yada |
| collection | DOAJ |
| description | Objectives The long-term impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the mental health issues of the general population in Japan is unclear. Thus, we examined the long-term effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on fear of COVID-19 and psychological distress and determined their causal relationships among the general population in Japan.Design and setting A longitudinal online survey was conducted by a Japanese online survey company to investigate the items regarding personal demographics, fear of COVID-19 (Japanese version of the fear of COVID-19 scale) and psychological distress (Japanese version of the Kessler 6 scale).Participants The participants were 274 individuals (women=44.2%) with a mean age of 51.6 years (SD=13.6) who responded to the online surveys in September 2020 (Time 1: T1) and January 2023 (Time 2: T2).Results The paired t-test showed that fear of COVID-19 decreased significantly from T1 to T2 (t=2.79, df=273, p<0.01, d=0.16). The χ2 test showed that the proportion of those at high risk for psychological distress remained the same (χ2=1.33, df=1, n.s.). Furthermore, in a two-panel cross-lagged analysis to determine the causal relationship between fear of COVID-19 and psychological distress, fear of COVID-19 at T1 significantly predicted psychological distress at T2 (β=0.26, p<0.001). Additional multiple regression analyses adjusted for covariates (age, sex, marital status, COVID-19 status, etc) showed that worsening household finances (β=0.11, p<0.05) and avoiding contact with others (β=0.20, p<0.01) were associated with fear of COVID-19 at T2.Conclusions During the long-lasting COVID-19 pandemic, fear of COVID-19 decreased, but psychological distress did not change. In addition, fear of COVID-19 predicted psychological distress and was associated with poorer household finances and avoiding contact with others. Mental health professionals and policymakers should continue to support mental health issues following the long-lasting COVID-19 pandemic through interventions focused on promoting financial support and social interactions to reduce fear of COVID-19. |
| format | Article |
| id | doaj-art-64d9075f71df4e538644641377d6d253 |
| institution | Kabale University |
| issn | 2044-6055 |
| language | English |
| publishDate | 2024-12-01 |
| publisher | BMJ Publishing Group |
| record_format | Article |
| series | BMJ Open |
| spelling | doaj-art-64d9075f71df4e538644641377d6d2532025-01-14T17:20:13ZengBMJ Publishing GroupBMJ Open2044-60552024-12-01141210.1136/bmjopen-2024-084158Long-term impact of COVID-19 pandemic on fear of COVID-19 and psychological distress among the general population in Japan: a longitudinal studyHironori Yada0Ryo Odachi1Keiichiro Adachi22 Department of Nursing, Yamaguchi Prefectural University, Yamaguchi, Japan3 Department of Nursing, Shunan University, Shunan, Yamaguchi, Japan1 Yamaguchi University Graduate School of Medicine, Ube, Yamaguchi, JapanObjectives The long-term impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the mental health issues of the general population in Japan is unclear. Thus, we examined the long-term effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on fear of COVID-19 and psychological distress and determined their causal relationships among the general population in Japan.Design and setting A longitudinal online survey was conducted by a Japanese online survey company to investigate the items regarding personal demographics, fear of COVID-19 (Japanese version of the fear of COVID-19 scale) and psychological distress (Japanese version of the Kessler 6 scale).Participants The participants were 274 individuals (women=44.2%) with a mean age of 51.6 years (SD=13.6) who responded to the online surveys in September 2020 (Time 1: T1) and January 2023 (Time 2: T2).Results The paired t-test showed that fear of COVID-19 decreased significantly from T1 to T2 (t=2.79, df=273, p<0.01, d=0.16). The χ2 test showed that the proportion of those at high risk for psychological distress remained the same (χ2=1.33, df=1, n.s.). Furthermore, in a two-panel cross-lagged analysis to determine the causal relationship between fear of COVID-19 and psychological distress, fear of COVID-19 at T1 significantly predicted psychological distress at T2 (β=0.26, p<0.001). Additional multiple regression analyses adjusted for covariates (age, sex, marital status, COVID-19 status, etc) showed that worsening household finances (β=0.11, p<0.05) and avoiding contact with others (β=0.20, p<0.01) were associated with fear of COVID-19 at T2.Conclusions During the long-lasting COVID-19 pandemic, fear of COVID-19 decreased, but psychological distress did not change. In addition, fear of COVID-19 predicted psychological distress and was associated with poorer household finances and avoiding contact with others. Mental health professionals and policymakers should continue to support mental health issues following the long-lasting COVID-19 pandemic through interventions focused on promoting financial support and social interactions to reduce fear of COVID-19.https://bmjopen.bmj.com/content/14/12/e084158.full |
| spellingShingle | Hironori Yada Ryo Odachi Keiichiro Adachi Long-term impact of COVID-19 pandemic on fear of COVID-19 and psychological distress among the general population in Japan: a longitudinal study BMJ Open |
| title | Long-term impact of COVID-19 pandemic on fear of COVID-19 and psychological distress among the general population in Japan: a longitudinal study |
| title_full | Long-term impact of COVID-19 pandemic on fear of COVID-19 and psychological distress among the general population in Japan: a longitudinal study |
| title_fullStr | Long-term impact of COVID-19 pandemic on fear of COVID-19 and psychological distress among the general population in Japan: a longitudinal study |
| title_full_unstemmed | Long-term impact of COVID-19 pandemic on fear of COVID-19 and psychological distress among the general population in Japan: a longitudinal study |
| title_short | Long-term impact of COVID-19 pandemic on fear of COVID-19 and psychological distress among the general population in Japan: a longitudinal study |
| title_sort | long term impact of covid 19 pandemic on fear of covid 19 and psychological distress among the general population in japan a longitudinal study |
| url | https://bmjopen.bmj.com/content/14/12/e084158.full |
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