Effects of Stretching and Resistance Training on Psychophysical Awareness: A Pilot Study
Muscle–joint flexibility is defined as the ability of a muscle to stretch in a controlled manner, allowing a wide range of movement at the joints. While numerous methodologies exist for improving flexibility, few studies have investigated the role of athletes’ perceptual processes and awareness rela...
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2025-07-01
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| author | Giovanni Esposito Rosario Ceruso Pietro Luigi Invernizzi Vincenzo Manzi Gaetano Raiola |
| author_facet | Giovanni Esposito Rosario Ceruso Pietro Luigi Invernizzi Vincenzo Manzi Gaetano Raiola |
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| description | Muscle–joint flexibility is defined as the ability of a muscle to stretch in a controlled manner, allowing a wide range of movement at the joints. While numerous methodologies exist for improving flexibility, few studies have investigated the role of athletes’ perceptual processes and awareness related to their own body and movement control during such training. In this pilot study, we explored how two different training protocols—static and dynamic stretching (control group, CON) and multi-joint resistance training (experimental group, EXP)—influence both flexibility and psychophysical awareness, understood as a multidimensional construct involving perceived flexibility improvements, self-assessed control over exercise execution, and cognitive-emotional responses such as engagement, motivation, and satisfaction during physical effort. The study involved 24 male amateur track-and-field athletes (mean age 23 ± 2.5 years), randomized into two equal groups. Over 12 weeks, both groups trained three times per week. Flexibility was assessed using the Sit and Reach Test at three time points (pre-, mid-, and post-intervention). A 2 × 3 mixed ANOVA revealed a significant group × time interaction (F = 20.17, <i>p</i> < 0.001), with the EXP group showing greater improvements than the CON group. In the EXP group, Sit and Reach scores increased from pre = 28.55 cm (SD = 4.91) to mid = 29.39 cm (SD = 4.67) and post = 29.48 cm (SD = 4.91), with a significant difference between pre and post (<i>p</i> = 0.01; d = 0.35). The CON group showed minimal changes, with scores of pre = 28.66 cm (SD = 4.92), mid = 28.76 cm (SD = 5.03), and post = 28.84 cm (SD = 5.10), and no significant difference between pre and post (<i>p</i> = 0.20; d = 0.04). Psychophysical awareness was assessed using a custom questionnaire structured on a 5-point Likert scale, with items addressing perception of flexibility, motor control, and exercise-related bodily sensations. The questionnaire showed excellent internal consistency (Cronbach’s α = 0.92). Within the EXP group, psychophysical awareness increased significantly (from 3.50 to 4.17; <i>p</i> = 0.01; d = 0.38), while no significant change occurred in the CON group (<i>p</i> = 0.16). Post-hoc power analysis confirmed small to moderate effect sizes within the EXP group, although between-group differences lacked sufficient statistical power. These results suggest that resistance training may improve flexibility and concurrently enhance athletes’ psychophysical self-awareness more effectively than traditional stretching. Such findings offer practical implications for coaches seeking to optimize flexibility training by integrating alternative methods that promote both physical and perceptual adaptations. |
| format | Article |
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| institution | Kabale University |
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| spelling | doaj-art-5f9d4a1dc19f4e5fb3a08a63b75a22452025-08-20T03:35:57ZengMDPI AGApplied Sciences2076-34172025-07-011515825910.3390/app15158259Effects of Stretching and Resistance Training on Psychophysical Awareness: A Pilot StudyGiovanni Esposito0Rosario Ceruso1Pietro Luigi Invernizzi2Vincenzo Manzi3Gaetano Raiola4Research Centre of Physical Education and Exercise, Pegaso University, 80143 Napoli, ItalyResearch Centre of Physical Education and Exercise, Pegaso University, 80143 Napoli, ItalyDepartment of Biomedical Sciences for Health, University of Milano, 20133 Milan, ItalyDepartment of Wellbeing, Nutrition and Sport, Pegaso University, 80143 Naples, ItalyResearch Centre of Physical Education and Exercise, Pegaso University, 80143 Napoli, ItalyMuscle–joint flexibility is defined as the ability of a muscle to stretch in a controlled manner, allowing a wide range of movement at the joints. While numerous methodologies exist for improving flexibility, few studies have investigated the role of athletes’ perceptual processes and awareness related to their own body and movement control during such training. In this pilot study, we explored how two different training protocols—static and dynamic stretching (control group, CON) and multi-joint resistance training (experimental group, EXP)—influence both flexibility and psychophysical awareness, understood as a multidimensional construct involving perceived flexibility improvements, self-assessed control over exercise execution, and cognitive-emotional responses such as engagement, motivation, and satisfaction during physical effort. The study involved 24 male amateur track-and-field athletes (mean age 23 ± 2.5 years), randomized into two equal groups. Over 12 weeks, both groups trained three times per week. Flexibility was assessed using the Sit and Reach Test at three time points (pre-, mid-, and post-intervention). A 2 × 3 mixed ANOVA revealed a significant group × time interaction (F = 20.17, <i>p</i> < 0.001), with the EXP group showing greater improvements than the CON group. In the EXP group, Sit and Reach scores increased from pre = 28.55 cm (SD = 4.91) to mid = 29.39 cm (SD = 4.67) and post = 29.48 cm (SD = 4.91), with a significant difference between pre and post (<i>p</i> = 0.01; d = 0.35). The CON group showed minimal changes, with scores of pre = 28.66 cm (SD = 4.92), mid = 28.76 cm (SD = 5.03), and post = 28.84 cm (SD = 5.10), and no significant difference between pre and post (<i>p</i> = 0.20; d = 0.04). Psychophysical awareness was assessed using a custom questionnaire structured on a 5-point Likert scale, with items addressing perception of flexibility, motor control, and exercise-related bodily sensations. The questionnaire showed excellent internal consistency (Cronbach’s α = 0.92). Within the EXP group, psychophysical awareness increased significantly (from 3.50 to 4.17; <i>p</i> = 0.01; d = 0.38), while no significant change occurred in the CON group (<i>p</i> = 0.16). Post-hoc power analysis confirmed small to moderate effect sizes within the EXP group, although between-group differences lacked sufficient statistical power. These results suggest that resistance training may improve flexibility and concurrently enhance athletes’ psychophysical self-awareness more effectively than traditional stretching. Such findings offer practical implications for coaches seeking to optimize flexibility training by integrating alternative methods that promote both physical and perceptual adaptations.https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/15/15/8259flexibilitymulti-joint resistance trainingstretchingpsychophysical awareness |
| spellingShingle | Giovanni Esposito Rosario Ceruso Pietro Luigi Invernizzi Vincenzo Manzi Gaetano Raiola Effects of Stretching and Resistance Training on Psychophysical Awareness: A Pilot Study Applied Sciences flexibility multi-joint resistance training stretching psychophysical awareness |
| title | Effects of Stretching and Resistance Training on Psychophysical Awareness: A Pilot Study |
| title_full | Effects of Stretching and Resistance Training on Psychophysical Awareness: A Pilot Study |
| title_fullStr | Effects of Stretching and Resistance Training on Psychophysical Awareness: A Pilot Study |
| title_full_unstemmed | Effects of Stretching and Resistance Training on Psychophysical Awareness: A Pilot Study |
| title_short | Effects of Stretching and Resistance Training on Psychophysical Awareness: A Pilot Study |
| title_sort | effects of stretching and resistance training on psychophysical awareness a pilot study |
| topic | flexibility multi-joint resistance training stretching psychophysical awareness |
| url | https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/15/15/8259 |
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