Skin Appendage Proteins of Tetrapods: Building Blocks of Claws, Feathers, Hair and Other Cornified Epithelial Structures
Reptiles, birds, mammals and amphibians, together forming the clade tetrapods, have a large diversity of cornified skin appendages, such as scales, feathers, hair and claws. The skin appendages consist of dead epithelial cells that are tightly packed with specific structural proteins. Here, we revie...
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MDPI AG
2025-02-01
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| Series: | Animals |
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| author | Karin Brigit Holthaus Julia Steinbinder Attila Placido Sachslehner Leopold Eckhart |
| author_facet | Karin Brigit Holthaus Julia Steinbinder Attila Placido Sachslehner Leopold Eckhart |
| author_sort | Karin Brigit Holthaus |
| collection | DOAJ |
| description | Reptiles, birds, mammals and amphibians, together forming the clade tetrapods, have a large diversity of cornified skin appendages, such as scales, feathers, hair and claws. The skin appendages consist of dead epithelial cells that are tightly packed with specific structural proteins. Here, we review the molecular diversity and expression patterns of major types of skin appendage proteins, namely keratin intermediate filament proteins, keratin-associated proteins (KRTAPs) and proteins encoded by genes of the epidermal differentiation complex (EDC), including corneous beta-proteins, also known as beta-keratins. We summarize the current knowledge about the components of skin appendages with a focus on keratins and EDC proteins that have recently been identified in reptiles and birds. We discuss gaps of knowledge and suggest directions of future research. |
| format | Article |
| id | doaj-art-5e14486eade349b6b69f79feb1cf89bd |
| institution | DOAJ |
| issn | 2076-2615 |
| language | English |
| publishDate | 2025-02-01 |
| publisher | MDPI AG |
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| series | Animals |
| spelling | doaj-art-5e14486eade349b6b69f79feb1cf89bd2025-08-20T02:48:09ZengMDPI AGAnimals2076-26152025-02-0115345710.3390/ani15030457Skin Appendage Proteins of Tetrapods: Building Blocks of Claws, Feathers, Hair and Other Cornified Epithelial StructuresKarin Brigit Holthaus0Julia Steinbinder1Attila Placido Sachslehner2Leopold Eckhart3Department of Dermatology, Medical University of Vienna, 1090 Vienna, AustriaDepartment of Dermatology, Medical University of Vienna, 1090 Vienna, AustriaDepartment of Dermatology, Medical University of Vienna, 1090 Vienna, AustriaDepartment of Dermatology, Medical University of Vienna, 1090 Vienna, AustriaReptiles, birds, mammals and amphibians, together forming the clade tetrapods, have a large diversity of cornified skin appendages, such as scales, feathers, hair and claws. The skin appendages consist of dead epithelial cells that are tightly packed with specific structural proteins. Here, we review the molecular diversity and expression patterns of major types of skin appendage proteins, namely keratin intermediate filament proteins, keratin-associated proteins (KRTAPs) and proteins encoded by genes of the epidermal differentiation complex (EDC), including corneous beta-proteins, also known as beta-keratins. We summarize the current knowledge about the components of skin appendages with a focus on keratins and EDC proteins that have recently been identified in reptiles and birds. We discuss gaps of knowledge and suggest directions of future research.https://www.mdpi.com/2076-2615/15/3/457skinkeratinocytescornificationfeatherclawnail |
| spellingShingle | Karin Brigit Holthaus Julia Steinbinder Attila Placido Sachslehner Leopold Eckhart Skin Appendage Proteins of Tetrapods: Building Blocks of Claws, Feathers, Hair and Other Cornified Epithelial Structures Animals skin keratinocytes cornification feather claw nail |
| title | Skin Appendage Proteins of Tetrapods: Building Blocks of Claws, Feathers, Hair and Other Cornified Epithelial Structures |
| title_full | Skin Appendage Proteins of Tetrapods: Building Blocks of Claws, Feathers, Hair and Other Cornified Epithelial Structures |
| title_fullStr | Skin Appendage Proteins of Tetrapods: Building Blocks of Claws, Feathers, Hair and Other Cornified Epithelial Structures |
| title_full_unstemmed | Skin Appendage Proteins of Tetrapods: Building Blocks of Claws, Feathers, Hair and Other Cornified Epithelial Structures |
| title_short | Skin Appendage Proteins of Tetrapods: Building Blocks of Claws, Feathers, Hair and Other Cornified Epithelial Structures |
| title_sort | skin appendage proteins of tetrapods building blocks of claws feathers hair and other cornified epithelial structures |
| topic | skin keratinocytes cornification feather claw nail |
| url | https://www.mdpi.com/2076-2615/15/3/457 |
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