Quantifying Spatiotemporal Changes in Supraglacial Debris Cover in Eastern Pamir from 1994 to 2024 Based on the Google Earth Engine
Supraglacial debris cover considerably influences sub-debris ablation patterns and the surface morphology of glaciers by modulating the land–atmosphere energy exchange. Understanding its spatial distribution and temporal variations is crucial for analyzing melting processes and managing downstream d...
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MDPI AG
2025-01-01
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| Series: | Remote Sensing |
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| author | Hehe Liu Zhen Zhang Shiyin Liu Fuming Xie Jing Ding Guolong Li Haoran Su |
| author_facet | Hehe Liu Zhen Zhang Shiyin Liu Fuming Xie Jing Ding Guolong Li Haoran Su |
| author_sort | Hehe Liu |
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| description | Supraglacial debris cover considerably influences sub-debris ablation patterns and the surface morphology of glaciers by modulating the land–atmosphere energy exchange. Understanding its spatial distribution and temporal variations is crucial for analyzing melting processes and managing downstream disaster mitigation efforts. In recent years, the overall slightly positive mass balance or stable state of eastern Pamir glaciers has been referred to as the “Pamir-Karakoram anomaly”. It is important to note that spatial heterogeneity in glacier change has drawn widespread research attention. However, research on the spatiotemporal changes in the debris cover in this region is completely nonexistent, which has led to an inadequate understanding of debris-covered glacier variations. To address this research gap, this study employed Landsat remote sensing images within the Google Earth Engine platform, leveraging the Random Forest algorithm to classify the supraglacial debris cover. The classification algorithm integrates spectral features from Landsat images and derived indices (NDVI, NDSI, NDWI, and BAND RATIO), supplemented by auxiliary factors such as slope and aspect. By extracting the supraglacial debris cover from 1994 to 2024, this study systematically analyzed the spatiotemporal variations and investigated the underlying drivers of debris cover changes from the perspective of mass conservation. By 2024, the area of supraglacial debris in eastern Pamir reached 258.08 ± 20.65 km<sup>2</sup>, accounting for 18.5 ± 1.55% of the total glacier area. It was observed that the Kungey Mountain region demonstrated the largest debris cover rate. Between 1994 and 2024, while the total glacier area decreased by −2.57 ± 0.70%, the debris-covered areas expanded upward at a rate of +1.64 ± 0.10% yr<sup>−1</sup>. The expansion of debris cover is driven by several factors in the context of global warming. The rising temperature resulted in permafrost degradation, slope destabilization, and intensified weathering on supply slopes, thereby augmenting the debris supply. Additionally, the steep supply slope in the study area facilitates the rapid deposition of collapsed debris onto glacier surfaces, with frequent avalanche events accelerating the mobilization of rock fragments. |
| format | Article |
| id | doaj-art-4475c32839164d038af3d51eec33ac67 |
| institution | Kabale University |
| issn | 2072-4292 |
| language | English |
| publishDate | 2025-01-01 |
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| series | Remote Sensing |
| spelling | doaj-art-4475c32839164d038af3d51eec33ac672025-01-10T13:20:23ZengMDPI AGRemote Sensing2072-42922025-01-0117114410.3390/rs17010144Quantifying Spatiotemporal Changes in Supraglacial Debris Cover in Eastern Pamir from 1994 to 2024 Based on the Google Earth EngineHehe Liu0Zhen Zhang1Shiyin Liu2Fuming Xie3Jing Ding4Guolong Li5Haoran Su6School of Geomatics, Anhui University of Science and Technology, Huainan 232001, ChinaSchool of Geomatics, Anhui University of Science and Technology, Huainan 232001, ChinaInstitute of International Rivers and Eco-Security, Yunnan University, Kunming 650091, ChinaInstitute of International Rivers and Eco-Security, Yunnan University, Kunming 650091, ChinaSchool of Geomatics, Anhui University of Science and Technology, Huainan 232001, ChinaSchool of Geomatics, Anhui University of Science and Technology, Huainan 232001, ChinaSchool of Architecture, Harbin Institute of Technology (Shenzhen), Shenzhen 518055, ChinaSupraglacial debris cover considerably influences sub-debris ablation patterns and the surface morphology of glaciers by modulating the land–atmosphere energy exchange. Understanding its spatial distribution and temporal variations is crucial for analyzing melting processes and managing downstream disaster mitigation efforts. In recent years, the overall slightly positive mass balance or stable state of eastern Pamir glaciers has been referred to as the “Pamir-Karakoram anomaly”. It is important to note that spatial heterogeneity in glacier change has drawn widespread research attention. However, research on the spatiotemporal changes in the debris cover in this region is completely nonexistent, which has led to an inadequate understanding of debris-covered glacier variations. To address this research gap, this study employed Landsat remote sensing images within the Google Earth Engine platform, leveraging the Random Forest algorithm to classify the supraglacial debris cover. The classification algorithm integrates spectral features from Landsat images and derived indices (NDVI, NDSI, NDWI, and BAND RATIO), supplemented by auxiliary factors such as slope and aspect. By extracting the supraglacial debris cover from 1994 to 2024, this study systematically analyzed the spatiotemporal variations and investigated the underlying drivers of debris cover changes from the perspective of mass conservation. By 2024, the area of supraglacial debris in eastern Pamir reached 258.08 ± 20.65 km<sup>2</sup>, accounting for 18.5 ± 1.55% of the total glacier area. It was observed that the Kungey Mountain region demonstrated the largest debris cover rate. Between 1994 and 2024, while the total glacier area decreased by −2.57 ± 0.70%, the debris-covered areas expanded upward at a rate of +1.64 ± 0.10% yr<sup>−1</sup>. The expansion of debris cover is driven by several factors in the context of global warming. The rising temperature resulted in permafrost degradation, slope destabilization, and intensified weathering on supply slopes, thereby augmenting the debris supply. Additionally, the steep supply slope in the study area facilitates the rapid deposition of collapsed debris onto glacier surfaces, with frequent avalanche events accelerating the mobilization of rock fragments.https://www.mdpi.com/2072-4292/17/1/144supraglacial debris coverglaciereastern PamirRandom ForestGoogle Earth Enginespatiotemporal change |
| spellingShingle | Hehe Liu Zhen Zhang Shiyin Liu Fuming Xie Jing Ding Guolong Li Haoran Su Quantifying Spatiotemporal Changes in Supraglacial Debris Cover in Eastern Pamir from 1994 to 2024 Based on the Google Earth Engine Remote Sensing supraglacial debris cover glacier eastern Pamir Random Forest Google Earth Engine spatiotemporal change |
| title | Quantifying Spatiotemporal Changes in Supraglacial Debris Cover in Eastern Pamir from 1994 to 2024 Based on the Google Earth Engine |
| title_full | Quantifying Spatiotemporal Changes in Supraglacial Debris Cover in Eastern Pamir from 1994 to 2024 Based on the Google Earth Engine |
| title_fullStr | Quantifying Spatiotemporal Changes in Supraglacial Debris Cover in Eastern Pamir from 1994 to 2024 Based on the Google Earth Engine |
| title_full_unstemmed | Quantifying Spatiotemporal Changes in Supraglacial Debris Cover in Eastern Pamir from 1994 to 2024 Based on the Google Earth Engine |
| title_short | Quantifying Spatiotemporal Changes in Supraglacial Debris Cover in Eastern Pamir from 1994 to 2024 Based on the Google Earth Engine |
| title_sort | quantifying spatiotemporal changes in supraglacial debris cover in eastern pamir from 1994 to 2024 based on the google earth engine |
| topic | supraglacial debris cover glacier eastern Pamir Random Forest Google Earth Engine spatiotemporal change |
| url | https://www.mdpi.com/2072-4292/17/1/144 |
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