Impacts and Statistical Mitigation of Missing Data on the 21 cm Power Spectrum: A Case Study with the Hydrogen Epoch of Reionization Array
The precise characterization and mitigation of systematic effects is one of the biggest roadblocks impeding the detection of the fluctuations of cosmological 21 cm signals. Missing data in radio cosmological experiments, often due to radio frequency interference (RFI), pose a particular challenge to...
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| author | Kai-Feng Chen Michael J. Wilensky Adrian Liu Joshua S. Dillon Jacqueline N. Hewitt Tyrone Adams James E. Aguirre Rushelle Baartman Adam P. Beardsley Lindsay M. Berkhout Gianni Bernardi Tashalee S. Billings Judd D. Bowman Philip Bull Jacob Burba Ruby Byrne Steven Carey Samir Choudhuri Tyler Cox David. R. DeBoer Matt Dexter Nico Eksteen John Ely Aaron Ewall-Wice Steven R. Furlanetto Kingsley Gale-Sides Hugh Garsden Bharat Kumar Gehlot Adélie Gorce Deepthi Gorthi Ziyaad Halday Bryna J. Hazelton Jack Hickish Daniel C. Jacobs Alec Josaitis Nicholas S. Kern Joshua Kerrigan Piyanat Kittiwisit Matthew Kolopanis Paul La Plante Adam Lanman Yin-Zhe Ma David H. E. MacMahon Lourence Malan Cresshim Malgas Keith Malgas Bradley Marero Zachary E. Martinot Lisa McBride Andrei Mesinger Nicel Mohamed-Hinds Mathakane Molewa Miguel F. Morales Steven G. Murray Hans Nuwegeld Aaron R. Parsons Robert Pascua Yuxiang Qin Eleanor Rath Nima Razavi-Ghods James Robnett Mario G. Santos Peter Sims Saurabh Singh Dara Storer Hilton Swarts Jianrong Tan Pieter van Wyngaarden Haoxuan Zheng |
| author_facet | Kai-Feng Chen Michael J. Wilensky Adrian Liu Joshua S. Dillon Jacqueline N. Hewitt Tyrone Adams James E. Aguirre Rushelle Baartman Adam P. Beardsley Lindsay M. Berkhout Gianni Bernardi Tashalee S. Billings Judd D. Bowman Philip Bull Jacob Burba Ruby Byrne Steven Carey Samir Choudhuri Tyler Cox David. R. DeBoer Matt Dexter Nico Eksteen John Ely Aaron Ewall-Wice Steven R. Furlanetto Kingsley Gale-Sides Hugh Garsden Bharat Kumar Gehlot Adélie Gorce Deepthi Gorthi Ziyaad Halday Bryna J. Hazelton Jack Hickish Daniel C. Jacobs Alec Josaitis Nicholas S. Kern Joshua Kerrigan Piyanat Kittiwisit Matthew Kolopanis Paul La Plante Adam Lanman Yin-Zhe Ma David H. E. MacMahon Lourence Malan Cresshim Malgas Keith Malgas Bradley Marero Zachary E. Martinot Lisa McBride Andrei Mesinger Nicel Mohamed-Hinds Mathakane Molewa Miguel F. Morales Steven G. Murray Hans Nuwegeld Aaron R. Parsons Robert Pascua Yuxiang Qin Eleanor Rath Nima Razavi-Ghods James Robnett Mario G. Santos Peter Sims Saurabh Singh Dara Storer Hilton Swarts Jianrong Tan Pieter van Wyngaarden Haoxuan Zheng |
| author_sort | Kai-Feng Chen |
| collection | DOAJ |
| description | The precise characterization and mitigation of systematic effects is one of the biggest roadblocks impeding the detection of the fluctuations of cosmological 21 cm signals. Missing data in radio cosmological experiments, often due to radio frequency interference (RFI), pose a particular challenge to power spectrum analysis as this could lead to the ringing of bright foreground modes in the Fourier space, heavily contaminating the cosmological signals. Here we show that the problem of missing data becomes even more arduous in the presence of systematic effects. Using a realistic numerical simulation, we demonstrate that partially flagged data combined with systematic effects can introduce significant foreground ringing. We show that such an effect can be mitigated through inpainting the missing data. We present a rigorous statistical framework that incorporates the process of inpainting missing data into a quadratic estimator of the 21 cm power spectrum. Under this framework, the uncertainties associated with our inpainting method and its impact on power spectrum statistics can be understood. These results are applied to the latest Phase II observations taken by the Hydrogen Epoch of Reionization Array, forming a crucial component in power spectrum analyses as we move toward detecting 21 cm signals in the ever more noisy RFI environment. |
| format | Article |
| id | doaj-art-43ace84abd454011a128d689cfadbd3d |
| institution | OA Journals |
| issn | 1538-4357 |
| language | English |
| publishDate | 2025-01-01 |
| publisher | IOP Publishing |
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| series | The Astrophysical Journal |
| spelling | doaj-art-43ace84abd454011a128d689cfadbd3d2025-08-20T02:25:44ZengIOP PublishingThe Astrophysical Journal1538-43572025-01-01979219110.3847/1538-4357/ad9b91Impacts and Statistical Mitigation of Missing Data on the 21 cm Power Spectrum: A Case Study with the Hydrogen Epoch of Reionization ArrayKai-Feng Chen0https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3839-0230Michael J. Wilensky1https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7716-9312Adrian Liu2https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6876-0928Joshua S. Dillon3https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3336-9958Jacqueline N. Hewitt4https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4117-570XTyrone Adams5James E. Aguirre6https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4810-666XRushelle Baartman7Adam P. Beardsley8https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9428-8233Lindsay M. Berkhout9https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2293-9639Gianni Bernardi10https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0916-7443Tashalee S. Billings11Judd D. Bowman12https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8475-2036Philip Bull13https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5668-3101Jacob Burba14https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8465-9341Ruby Byrne15Steven Carey16Samir Choudhuri17Tyler Cox18https://orcid.org/0009-0008-2574-3878David. R. DeBoer19https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3197-2294Matt Dexter20Nico Eksteen21John Ely22Aaron Ewall-Wice23https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0086-7363Steven R. Furlanetto24https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0658-1243Kingsley Gale-Sides25Hugh Garsden26Bharat Kumar Gehlot27Adélie Gorce28https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1712-737XDeepthi Gorthi29https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0829-167XZiyaad Halday30Bryna J. Hazelton31https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7532-645XJack Hickish32Daniel C. Jacobs33https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0917-2269Alec Josaitis34Nicholas S. Kern35https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8211-1892Joshua Kerrigan36https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1876-272XPiyanat Kittiwisit37https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0953-313XMatthew Kolopanis38https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2950-2974Paul La Plante39https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4693-0102Adam Lanman40Yin-Zhe Ma41https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8108-0986David H. E. MacMahon42Lourence Malan43Cresshim Malgas44Keith Malgas45Bradley Marero46Zachary E. Martinot47Lisa McBride48Andrei Mesinger49https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3374-1772Nicel Mohamed-Hinds50Mathakane Molewa51Miguel F. Morales52https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7694-4030Steven G. Murray53https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3059-3823Hans Nuwegeld54Aaron R. Parsons55https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5400-8097Robert Pascua56https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0073-5528Yuxiang Qin57https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4314-1810Eleanor Rath58Nima Razavi-Ghods59James Robnett60Mario G. Santos61https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3892-3073Peter Sims62https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2871-0413Saurabh Singh63Dara Storer64Hilton Swarts65Jianrong Tan66https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6161-7037Pieter van Wyngaarden67Haoxuan Zheng68MIT Kavli Institute , Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA ; kfchen@mit.edu; Department of Physics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology , Cambridge, MA 02139, USA; Department of Physics and Trottier Space Institute, McGill University , Montreal QC H3A 2T8, CanadaDepartment of Physics and Trottier Space Institute, McGill University , Montreal QC H3A 2T8, Canada; Jodrell Bank Centre for Astrophysics, University of Manchester , Manchester M13 9PL, UKDepartment of Physics and Trottier Space Institute, McGill University , Montreal QC H3A 2T8, CanadaDepartment of Astronomy, University of California , Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA; Radio Astronomy Laboratory, University of California , Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720, USAMIT Kavli Institute , Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA ; kfchen@mit.edu; Department of Physics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology , Cambridge, MA 02139, USASouth African Radio Astronomy Observatory , Cape Town 7925, South AfricaDepartment of Physics and Astronomy, University of Pennsylvania , Philadelphia, PA 19104, USASouth African Radio Astronomy Observatory , Cape Town 7925, South AfricaDepartment of Physics, Winona State University , Winona, MN 55987, USADepartment of Physics and Trottier Space Institute, McGill University , Montreal QC H3A 2T8, CanadaSouth African Radio Astronomy Observatory , Cape Town 7925, South Africa; INAF—Istituto di Radioastronomia , via Gobetti 101, 40129 Bologna, Italy; Department of Physics and Electronics, Rhodes University , PO Box 94, Grahamstown 6140, South AfricaDepartment of Physics and Astronomy, University of Pennsylvania , Philadelphia, PA 19104, USASchool of Earth and Space Exploration, Arizona State University , Tempe, AZ 85287, USAJodrell Bank Centre for Astrophysics, University of Manchester , Manchester M13 9PL, UK; Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Western Cape , Cape Town 7535, South AfricaJodrell Bank Centre for Astrophysics, University of Manchester , Manchester M13 9PL, UKCahill Center for Astronomy and Astrophysics, California Institute of Technology , Pasadena, CA 91125, USACavendish Astrophysics, University of Cambridge , Cambridge CB3 0HE, UKCentre for Strings , Gravitation and Cosmology, Department of Physics, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai 600036, IndiaDepartment of Astronomy, University of California , Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720, USARadio Astronomy Laboratory, University of California , Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720, USARadio Astronomy Laboratory, University of California , Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720, USASouth African Radio Astronomy Observatory , Cape Town 7925, South AfricaCavendish Astrophysics, University of Cambridge , Cambridge CB3 0HE, UKDepartment of Astronomy, University of California , Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA; Radio Astronomy Laboratory, University of California , Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720, USADepartment of Physics and Astronomy, University of California , Los Angeles, CA 90095, USACavendish Astrophysics, University of Cambridge , Cambridge CB3 0HE, UKJodrell Bank Centre for Astrophysics, University of Manchester , Manchester M13 9PL, UKSchool of Earth and Space Exploration, Arizona State University , Tempe, AZ 85287, USAInstitut d’Astrophysique Spatiale, CNRS, Université Paris-Saclay , 91405 Orsay, FranceDepartment of Astronomy, University of California , Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720, USASouth African Radio Astronomy Observatory , Cape Town 7925, South AfricaDepartment of Physics, University of Washington , Seattle, WA 98195, USA; eScience Institute, University of Washington , Seattle, WA 98195, USARadio Astronomy Laboratory, University of California , Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720, USASchool of Earth and Space Exploration, Arizona State University , Tempe, AZ 85287, USACavendish Astrophysics, University of Cambridge , Cambridge CB3 0HE, UKMIT Kavli Institute , Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA ; kfchen@mit.edu; Department of Physics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology , Cambridge, MA 02139, USADepartment of Physics, Brown University , Providence, RI 02912, USADepartment of Physics and Astronomy, University of Western Cape , Cape Town 7535, South AfricaSchool of Earth and Space Exploration, Arizona State University , Tempe, AZ 85287, USADepartment of Computer Science, University of Nevada , Las Vegas, NV 89154, USA; Nevada Center for Astrophysics, University of Nevada , Las Vegas, NV 89154, USAMIT Kavli Institute , Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA ; kfchen@mit.eduDepartment of Physics, Stellenbosch University , Matieland 7602, South AfricaRadio Astronomy Laboratory, University of California , Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720, USASouth African Radio Astronomy Observatory , Cape Town 7925, South AfricaSouth African Radio Astronomy Observatory , Cape Town 7925, South AfricaSouth African Radio Astronomy Observatory , Cape Town 7925, South AfricaSouth African Radio Astronomy Observatory , Cape Town 7925, South AfricaDepartment of Physics and Astronomy, University of Pennsylvania , Philadelphia, PA 19104, USADepartment of Physics and Trottier Space Institute, McGill University , Montreal QC H3A 2T8, Canada; Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale, CNRS, Université Paris-Saclay , 91405 Orsay, FranceScuola Normale Superiore , 56126 Pisa, PI, ItalyDepartment of Physics, University of Washington , Seattle, WA 98195, USASouth African Radio Astronomy Observatory , Cape Town 7925, South AfricaDepartment of Physics, University of Washington , Seattle, WA 98195, USASchool of Earth and Space Exploration, Arizona State University , Tempe, AZ 85287, USA; Scuola Normale Superiore , 56126 Pisa, PI, ItalySouth African Radio Astronomy Observatory , Cape Town 7925, South AfricaDepartment of Astronomy, University of California , Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720, USADepartment of Physics and Trottier Space Institute, McGill University , Montreal QC H3A 2T8, CanadaResearch School of Astronomy and Astrophysics, Australian National University , Canberra, ACT 2611, AustraliaMIT Kavli Institute , Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA ; kfchen@mit.edu; Department of Physics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology , Cambridge, MA 02139, USACavendish Astrophysics, University of Cambridge , Cambridge CB3 0HE, UKNational Radio Astronomy Observatory , Socorro, NM 87801, USASouth African Radio Astronomy Observatory , Cape Town 7925, South Africa; Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Western Cape , Cape Town 7535, South AfricaSchool of Earth and Space Exploration, Arizona State University , Tempe, AZ 85287, USARaman Research Institute , Sadashivanagar, Bangalore 560080, IndiaDepartment of Physics, University of Washington , Seattle, WA 98195, USASouth African Radio Astronomy Observatory , Cape Town 7925, South AfricaDepartment of Physics and Astronomy, University of Pennsylvania , Philadelphia, PA 19104, USASouth African Radio Astronomy Observatory , Cape Town 7925, South AfricaDepartment of Physics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology , Cambridge, MA 02139, USAThe precise characterization and mitigation of systematic effects is one of the biggest roadblocks impeding the detection of the fluctuations of cosmological 21 cm signals. Missing data in radio cosmological experiments, often due to radio frequency interference (RFI), pose a particular challenge to power spectrum analysis as this could lead to the ringing of bright foreground modes in the Fourier space, heavily contaminating the cosmological signals. Here we show that the problem of missing data becomes even more arduous in the presence of systematic effects. Using a realistic numerical simulation, we demonstrate that partially flagged data combined with systematic effects can introduce significant foreground ringing. We show that such an effect can be mitigated through inpainting the missing data. We present a rigorous statistical framework that incorporates the process of inpainting missing data into a quadratic estimator of the 21 cm power spectrum. Under this framework, the uncertainties associated with our inpainting method and its impact on power spectrum statistics can be understood. These results are applied to the latest Phase II observations taken by the Hydrogen Epoch of Reionization Array, forming a crucial component in power spectrum analyses as we move toward detecting 21 cm signals in the ever more noisy RFI environment.https://doi.org/10.3847/1538-4357/ad9b91Observational cosmologyRadio interferometryH I line emission |
| spellingShingle | Kai-Feng Chen Michael J. Wilensky Adrian Liu Joshua S. Dillon Jacqueline N. Hewitt Tyrone Adams James E. Aguirre Rushelle Baartman Adam P. Beardsley Lindsay M. Berkhout Gianni Bernardi Tashalee S. Billings Judd D. Bowman Philip Bull Jacob Burba Ruby Byrne Steven Carey Samir Choudhuri Tyler Cox David. R. DeBoer Matt Dexter Nico Eksteen John Ely Aaron Ewall-Wice Steven R. Furlanetto Kingsley Gale-Sides Hugh Garsden Bharat Kumar Gehlot Adélie Gorce Deepthi Gorthi Ziyaad Halday Bryna J. Hazelton Jack Hickish Daniel C. Jacobs Alec Josaitis Nicholas S. Kern Joshua Kerrigan Piyanat Kittiwisit Matthew Kolopanis Paul La Plante Adam Lanman Yin-Zhe Ma David H. E. MacMahon Lourence Malan Cresshim Malgas Keith Malgas Bradley Marero Zachary E. Martinot Lisa McBride Andrei Mesinger Nicel Mohamed-Hinds Mathakane Molewa Miguel F. Morales Steven G. Murray Hans Nuwegeld Aaron R. Parsons Robert Pascua Yuxiang Qin Eleanor Rath Nima Razavi-Ghods James Robnett Mario G. Santos Peter Sims Saurabh Singh Dara Storer Hilton Swarts Jianrong Tan Pieter van Wyngaarden Haoxuan Zheng Impacts and Statistical Mitigation of Missing Data on the 21 cm Power Spectrum: A Case Study with the Hydrogen Epoch of Reionization Array The Astrophysical Journal Observational cosmology Radio interferometry H I line emission |
| title | Impacts and Statistical Mitigation of Missing Data on the 21 cm Power Spectrum: A Case Study with the Hydrogen Epoch of Reionization Array |
| title_full | Impacts and Statistical Mitigation of Missing Data on the 21 cm Power Spectrum: A Case Study with the Hydrogen Epoch of Reionization Array |
| title_fullStr | Impacts and Statistical Mitigation of Missing Data on the 21 cm Power Spectrum: A Case Study with the Hydrogen Epoch of Reionization Array |
| title_full_unstemmed | Impacts and Statistical Mitigation of Missing Data on the 21 cm Power Spectrum: A Case Study with the Hydrogen Epoch of Reionization Array |
| title_short | Impacts and Statistical Mitigation of Missing Data on the 21 cm Power Spectrum: A Case Study with the Hydrogen Epoch of Reionization Array |
| title_sort | impacts and statistical mitigation of missing data on the 21 cm power spectrum a case study with the hydrogen epoch of reionization array |
| topic | Observational cosmology Radio interferometry H I line emission |
| url | https://doi.org/10.3847/1538-4357/ad9b91 |
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