Investigating sex differences in developmental origins of adolescent depression
IntroductionEvolutionary hypotheses propose that fetuses show “predictive adaptive” responses to the prenatal environment based on likely continuity with the postnatal environment, and males and females have different adaptive priorities. Female adaptations appear to implicate hypothalamic-pituitary...
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Frontiers Media S.A.
2025-08-01
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| Series: | Frontiers in Child and Adolescent Psychiatry |
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| Online Access: | https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/frcha.2025.1602523/full |
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| author | Elizabeth C. Braithwaite Esther Hargreaves Jonathan Hill Andrew Pickles Helen Sharp Nicky Wright |
| author_facet | Elizabeth C. Braithwaite Esther Hargreaves Jonathan Hill Andrew Pickles Helen Sharp Nicky Wright |
| author_sort | Elizabeth C. Braithwaite |
| collection | DOAJ |
| description | IntroductionEvolutionary hypotheses propose that fetuses show “predictive adaptive” responses to the prenatal environment based on likely continuity with the postnatal environment, and males and females have different adaptive priorities. Female adaptations appear to implicate hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis mechanisms moderated by early tactile stimulation. Based on these hypotheses we predict that lack of prenatal-postnatal environmental continuity (mismatch), will be associated with poorer outcomes in females, an effect that will be ameliorated by tactile stimulation. We previously reported that this prediction was supported by evidence from the Wirral Child Health and Development Study (WCHADS) of a three-way interaction between maternal prenatal anxiety, postnatal anxiety, and infant stroking in the prediction of irritability at age 7 years, seen only in girls. Here, we ask whether this effect persists over another 6 years into early adolescence.MethodsMothers in a general population cohort (WCHADS) provided self-reported anxiety scores at 20 weeks of pregnancy, and at 9 weeks, 14 months and 3.5 years postpartum, and frequency of infant stroking at 9 weeks. Their children self-reported symptoms of depression in early adolescence at age 13 years. Structural equation modelling (SEM) with maximum-likelihood estimation was conducted using data from N = 695 mother-child dyads.ResultsThere was a three-way interaction between prenatal and postnatal anxiety and maternal stroking in the prediction of early adolescent depression, seen only in girls, consistent with our previous reports. When examining self-reported depression at age 13 years, increased stroking was associated with decreased symptoms of depression in girls in the mis-match group characterised by low prenatal and high postal anxiety, but not the high prenatal and low postnatal mis-match group.DiscussionWe provide preliminary novel evidence that mechanisms likely to have evolved well before the emergence of humans, contribute to the risk of adolescent depression in girls. These findings have implications for understanding developmental origins of sex differences in adolescent depression. |
| format | Article |
| id | doaj-art-2e181620ee064ff797cf3553a04856c0 |
| institution | Kabale University |
| issn | 2813-4540 |
| language | English |
| publishDate | 2025-08-01 |
| publisher | Frontiers Media S.A. |
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| series | Frontiers in Child and Adolescent Psychiatry |
| spelling | doaj-art-2e181620ee064ff797cf3553a04856c02025-08-20T04:02:50ZengFrontiers Media S.A.Frontiers in Child and Adolescent Psychiatry2813-45402025-08-01410.3389/frcha.2025.16025231602523Investigating sex differences in developmental origins of adolescent depressionElizabeth C. Braithwaite0Esther Hargreaves1Jonathan Hill2Andrew Pickles3Helen Sharp4Nicky Wright5School of Psychology, Faculty of Health and Education, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, United KingdomSchool of Psychology and Clinical Language Sciences, University of Reading, Reading, United KingdomSchool of Psychology, Faculty of Health and Education, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, United KingdomInstitute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, Kings College London, London, United KingdomDepartment of Primary Care and Mental Health, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United KingdomSchool of Psychology, Faculty of Health and Education, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, United KingdomIntroductionEvolutionary hypotheses propose that fetuses show “predictive adaptive” responses to the prenatal environment based on likely continuity with the postnatal environment, and males and females have different adaptive priorities. Female adaptations appear to implicate hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis mechanisms moderated by early tactile stimulation. Based on these hypotheses we predict that lack of prenatal-postnatal environmental continuity (mismatch), will be associated with poorer outcomes in females, an effect that will be ameliorated by tactile stimulation. We previously reported that this prediction was supported by evidence from the Wirral Child Health and Development Study (WCHADS) of a three-way interaction between maternal prenatal anxiety, postnatal anxiety, and infant stroking in the prediction of irritability at age 7 years, seen only in girls. Here, we ask whether this effect persists over another 6 years into early adolescence.MethodsMothers in a general population cohort (WCHADS) provided self-reported anxiety scores at 20 weeks of pregnancy, and at 9 weeks, 14 months and 3.5 years postpartum, and frequency of infant stroking at 9 weeks. Their children self-reported symptoms of depression in early adolescence at age 13 years. Structural equation modelling (SEM) with maximum-likelihood estimation was conducted using data from N = 695 mother-child dyads.ResultsThere was a three-way interaction between prenatal and postnatal anxiety and maternal stroking in the prediction of early adolescent depression, seen only in girls, consistent with our previous reports. When examining self-reported depression at age 13 years, increased stroking was associated with decreased symptoms of depression in girls in the mis-match group characterised by low prenatal and high postal anxiety, but not the high prenatal and low postnatal mis-match group.DiscussionWe provide preliminary novel evidence that mechanisms likely to have evolved well before the emergence of humans, contribute to the risk of adolescent depression in girls. These findings have implications for understanding developmental origins of sex differences in adolescent depression.https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/frcha.2025.1602523/fullmis-matchmaternal anxietyadolescent depressionmaternal strokingevolutionary mechanisms |
| spellingShingle | Elizabeth C. Braithwaite Esther Hargreaves Jonathan Hill Andrew Pickles Helen Sharp Nicky Wright Investigating sex differences in developmental origins of adolescent depression Frontiers in Child and Adolescent Psychiatry mis-match maternal anxiety adolescent depression maternal stroking evolutionary mechanisms |
| title | Investigating sex differences in developmental origins of adolescent depression |
| title_full | Investigating sex differences in developmental origins of adolescent depression |
| title_fullStr | Investigating sex differences in developmental origins of adolescent depression |
| title_full_unstemmed | Investigating sex differences in developmental origins of adolescent depression |
| title_short | Investigating sex differences in developmental origins of adolescent depression |
| title_sort | investigating sex differences in developmental origins of adolescent depression |
| topic | mis-match maternal anxiety adolescent depression maternal stroking evolutionary mechanisms |
| url | https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/frcha.2025.1602523/full |
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