Effects of a community-driven water, sanitation, and hygiene intervention on diarrhea, child growth, and local institutions: A cluster-randomized controlled trial in rural Democratic Republic of Congo.
<h4>Background</h4>Diarrhea and growth faltering in early childhood reduce survival and impair neurodevelopment. We assessed whether a national program combining (i) funds for latrine and water upgrades; (ii) institutional strengthening; and (iii) behavior change campaigns reduced diarrh...
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2025-03-01
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| Online Access: | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1004524 |
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| author | John P Quattrochi Kevin Croke Caleb Dohou Luca Stanus Ghib Yannick Lokaya Aidan Coville Eric Mvukiyehe |
| author_facet | John P Quattrochi Kevin Croke Caleb Dohou Luca Stanus Ghib Yannick Lokaya Aidan Coville Eric Mvukiyehe |
| author_sort | John P Quattrochi |
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| description | <h4>Background</h4>Diarrhea and growth faltering in early childhood reduce survival and impair neurodevelopment. We assessed whether a national program combining (i) funds for latrine and water upgrades; (ii) institutional strengthening; and (iii) behavior change campaigns reduced diarrhea and stunting, and strengthened local institutions.<h4>Methods and findings</h4>We collaborated with program implementers to conduct a cluster-randomized controlled trial in four provinces of the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). Three hundred thirty-two rural villages were grouped into 121 clusters to minimize geographic spillovers. Between 15 March and 30 June 2018, we randomly assigned, after stratifying by province and cluster size, 50 intervention and 71 control clusters. Masking of participants and interviewers was not possible. Primary outcomes were length-for-age Z-score among children under 5 years of age, caregiver-reported diarrhea in last 7 days among children under 5 years of age, and an index of community WASH institutions. The primary analysis was on an intention-to-treat basis, using a binary variable indicating whether the participant was in an intervention or control cluster. Three thousand two hundred eighty-three households were interviewed between November 2022 and April 2023, median 3.6 years post-intervention. The intervention had no effect on diarrhea (adjusted mean difference -0.01 [95% -0.05 to 0.03]). Diarrhea prevalence was high overall, at 38% in the treatment group and 42% in the control group. The intervention had no effect on length-for-age Z-scores in children (adjusted mean difference -0.01 [95% CI -0.15 to 0.12]). In the control group, the mean length-for-age Z-score was -2.18 (1.60 SD). Villages in the intervention group had a 0.40 higher score on the WASH institutions index (95% CI 0.16-0.65). The percentage of villages in the intervention group with an active water, sanitation, and hygiene (or just water) committee was 21 pp higher than the control group. Households in the intervention group were 24 pp (95% CI 12-36) more likely to report using an improved water source, 18 pp (95% CI 10-25) more likely to report using an improved sanitation facility, and reported more positive perceptions of water governance (adjusted difference 0.19 SD [95% CI 0.04-0.34]). The trial had several limitations, including incomplete (86%) adherence in the implementation group, the absence of baseline measures, and the reliance on self-reported outcomes for some measures.<h4>Conclusions</h4>The DRC's national rural WASH program increased access to improved water and sanitation infrastructure, and created new WASH institutions, all of which persisted for at least 3.6 years. However, these effects were not sufficient to reduce diarrhea or growth faltering.<h4>Trial registration</h4>The Pan African Clinical Trials Registry PACTR202102616421588 (https://pactr.samrc.ac.za/TrialDisplay.aspx?TrialID=14670). The American Economics Association RCT registry AEARCTR-0004648 (https://www.socialscienceregistry.org/trials/4648). |
| format | Article |
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| issn | 1549-1277 1549-1676 |
| language | English |
| publishDate | 2025-03-01 |
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| spelling | doaj-art-0c8372f002884f91a8e6f19acb4ffc702025-08-20T02:00:47ZengPublic Library of Science (PLoS)PLoS Medicine1549-12771549-16762025-03-01223e100452410.1371/journal.pmed.1004524Effects of a community-driven water, sanitation, and hygiene intervention on diarrhea, child growth, and local institutions: A cluster-randomized controlled trial in rural Democratic Republic of Congo.John P QuattrochiKevin CrokeCaleb DohouLuca Stanus GhibYannick LokayaAidan CovilleEric Mvukiyehe<h4>Background</h4>Diarrhea and growth faltering in early childhood reduce survival and impair neurodevelopment. We assessed whether a national program combining (i) funds for latrine and water upgrades; (ii) institutional strengthening; and (iii) behavior change campaigns reduced diarrhea and stunting, and strengthened local institutions.<h4>Methods and findings</h4>We collaborated with program implementers to conduct a cluster-randomized controlled trial in four provinces of the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). Three hundred thirty-two rural villages were grouped into 121 clusters to minimize geographic spillovers. Between 15 March and 30 June 2018, we randomly assigned, after stratifying by province and cluster size, 50 intervention and 71 control clusters. Masking of participants and interviewers was not possible. Primary outcomes were length-for-age Z-score among children under 5 years of age, caregiver-reported diarrhea in last 7 days among children under 5 years of age, and an index of community WASH institutions. The primary analysis was on an intention-to-treat basis, using a binary variable indicating whether the participant was in an intervention or control cluster. Three thousand two hundred eighty-three households were interviewed between November 2022 and April 2023, median 3.6 years post-intervention. The intervention had no effect on diarrhea (adjusted mean difference -0.01 [95% -0.05 to 0.03]). Diarrhea prevalence was high overall, at 38% in the treatment group and 42% in the control group. The intervention had no effect on length-for-age Z-scores in children (adjusted mean difference -0.01 [95% CI -0.15 to 0.12]). In the control group, the mean length-for-age Z-score was -2.18 (1.60 SD). Villages in the intervention group had a 0.40 higher score on the WASH institutions index (95% CI 0.16-0.65). The percentage of villages in the intervention group with an active water, sanitation, and hygiene (or just water) committee was 21 pp higher than the control group. Households in the intervention group were 24 pp (95% CI 12-36) more likely to report using an improved water source, 18 pp (95% CI 10-25) more likely to report using an improved sanitation facility, and reported more positive perceptions of water governance (adjusted difference 0.19 SD [95% CI 0.04-0.34]). The trial had several limitations, including incomplete (86%) adherence in the implementation group, the absence of baseline measures, and the reliance on self-reported outcomes for some measures.<h4>Conclusions</h4>The DRC's national rural WASH program increased access to improved water and sanitation infrastructure, and created new WASH institutions, all of which persisted for at least 3.6 years. However, these effects were not sufficient to reduce diarrhea or growth faltering.<h4>Trial registration</h4>The Pan African Clinical Trials Registry PACTR202102616421588 (https://pactr.samrc.ac.za/TrialDisplay.aspx?TrialID=14670). The American Economics Association RCT registry AEARCTR-0004648 (https://www.socialscienceregistry.org/trials/4648).https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1004524 |
| spellingShingle | John P Quattrochi Kevin Croke Caleb Dohou Luca Stanus Ghib Yannick Lokaya Aidan Coville Eric Mvukiyehe Effects of a community-driven water, sanitation, and hygiene intervention on diarrhea, child growth, and local institutions: A cluster-randomized controlled trial in rural Democratic Republic of Congo. PLoS Medicine |
| title | Effects of a community-driven water, sanitation, and hygiene intervention on diarrhea, child growth, and local institutions: A cluster-randomized controlled trial in rural Democratic Republic of Congo. |
| title_full | Effects of a community-driven water, sanitation, and hygiene intervention on diarrhea, child growth, and local institutions: A cluster-randomized controlled trial in rural Democratic Republic of Congo. |
| title_fullStr | Effects of a community-driven water, sanitation, and hygiene intervention on diarrhea, child growth, and local institutions: A cluster-randomized controlled trial in rural Democratic Republic of Congo. |
| title_full_unstemmed | Effects of a community-driven water, sanitation, and hygiene intervention on diarrhea, child growth, and local institutions: A cluster-randomized controlled trial in rural Democratic Republic of Congo. |
| title_short | Effects of a community-driven water, sanitation, and hygiene intervention on diarrhea, child growth, and local institutions: A cluster-randomized controlled trial in rural Democratic Republic of Congo. |
| title_sort | effects of a community driven water sanitation and hygiene intervention on diarrhea child growth and local institutions a cluster randomized controlled trial in rural democratic republic of congo |
| url | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1004524 |
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